Children, young people and parent engagement in health intervention design and implementation: A scoping review.

INTRODUCTION: Engaging children and young people (CYP) with and without their parents in health research has the potential to improve the development and implementation of health interventions. However, to our knowledge, the scope of engagement activities used with this population and barriers to their engagement is unknown. The objective of this review was to identify and describe CYP engagement with and without their parents in the development and/or implementation of health interventions. METHODS: This scoping review included any primary research studies reporting on engaging CYP, with or without parents, in the design and/or implementation of health interventions. Healthcare professionals had to be involved over the course of the study and the study had to take place in either community, primary or tertiary care settings. The following databases were searched in May 2017, May 2020 and June 2021: Medline (OVID), CINAHL (EBSCO) and Embase (Elsevier). Two independent reviewers screened titles, abstracts and full-text articles and used a previously piloted extraction form to extract and summarize information from the included articles. RESULTS: Twenty-eight articles discussing twenty-four studies were included. CYP engagement throughout the research cycle was limited. There were no observed differences in the reported presence of engagement, types of interventions or outcomes of engagement between studies engaging CYP or CYP and parents. Studies engaging CYP and parents contained limited information on how these relationships affected outcomes of engagement. Engagement was enabled primarily by the maintenance of resources and relationships among stakeholders. CONCLUSIONS: Although CYP engagement often influenced health intervention and implementation design, they are inconsistently engaged across the research cycle. It is unclear whether parental involvement enhances CYP engagement. Future research should consider reporting guidelines to clarify the level of CYP and/or parent engagement, and enhance CYP engagement by fostering synergistic and sustainable partnerships with key stakeholders. PATIENT OR PUBLIC CONTRIBUTION: A parent partner with codesign experience contributed to the creation of the research questions, screened titles, abstracts and full texts, helped with data extraction and provided feedback on the manuscript.

Learning About the Current State of Digital Mental Health Interventions for Canadian Youth to Inform Future Decision-Making: Mixed Methods Study.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic has increased the demand for youth mental health services in Canada as disruptions to clinical care continue to persist due to the risk of transmission and exposure to the virus. Digital mental health interventions, including web-based resources and mobile apps, have provided opportunities to support youth mental health remotely across Canada. There is a need to better understand how these digital interventions are being selected, recommended, and used in various regions across Canada. OBJECTIVE: A national jurisdictional scan was completed to (1) determine what web-based programs, apps, and websites are promoted and licensed in Canada for youth mental health; (2) identify criteria and decision-making processes that Canadian jurisdictions use to select web-based programs, apps, and websites for youth mental health; and (3) identify upcoming trends, innovations, and digital mental health possibilities that are emerging in the youth sector. METHODS: The aims of the jurisdictional scan were addressed through a review of related academic and grey literature; stakeholder interviews, including individuals involved in various areas of the youth mental health sector; and a social media review of pertinent Twitter content. RESULTS: A total of 66 web-based resources and apps were identified for use by youth in Canada. 16 stakeholder interviews were completed and included discussions with researchers, clinicians, youth organizations, and others involved in digital interventions for youth mental health. These discussions identified a limited use of frameworks used to guide decision-making processes when selecting digital interventions. Many clinicians agreed on a similar set of eligibility requirements for youth mental health apps and digital resources, such as the evidence base and cultural relevance of the intervention. Stakeholders also identified upcoming trends and innovations in the youth digital mental health space, including artificial intelligence, digital phenotyping, and personalized therapy. Over 4 weeks, 2184 tweets were reviewed to identify and compare global and national trends and innovations involving digital mental health and youth. Key trends included the promotion of regional chat services as well as the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on youth mental health and access to care. CONCLUSIONS: As organizations begin to plan for the delivery of mental health care following the pandemic, there are concerns about the sustainability of these digital mental health interventions as well as a need for services to be more informed by the experiences and preferences of youth.

The MRI Self-Efficacy Scale for Children: Development and Preliminary Psychometrics.

OBJECTIVE: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a common procedure that can be distressing for children. Although not yet studied in the context of pediatric medical procedures, self-efficacy may be a good predictor of procedural stress and a clinically feasible target for behavioral intervention. The objectives of this study were to develop the MRI Self-Efficacy Scale for Children (MRI-SEC) and assess the preliminary psychometric properties. METHODS: Development of the MRI-SEC was informed by literature searches and feedback from healthcare providers. Twenty child-parent dyads naïve to MRI and 10 child-parent dyads with MRI experience completed the MRI-SEC to assess the comprehensibility and ease of use, and to inform item and scale refinement. The final version includes four practice items and 12 items directly assessing MRI self-efficacy. To evaluate the psychometric properties, 127 children (ages 6-12) and parents naïve to MRI completed the MRI-SEC, and a series of measures to assess construct validity. To evaluate test-retest reliability 27 children completed the MRI-SEC a second time. RESULTS: The MRI-SEC demonstrated acceptable internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and convergent validity. CONCLUSION: Development of the MRI-SEC provides an opportunity to better understand the role of self-efficacy as a predictor of procedural stress and cooperation with MRI, informing reliable prediction of children who may benefit from additional support for MRI and the development of tailored behavioral interventions.

Turn analysis and patient-centredness in paediatric otolaryngology surgical consultations.

OBJECTIVES: Physician and patient/parent communication is of utmost importance in consultations to improve the shared decision-making (SDM) processes. This study investigated SDM-related outcomes through turn analysis and an assessment of patient-centred dialogue. DESIGN: Multi-centre prospective cohort study analysing audio- and video-recorded patient/parent-physician interactions. SETTING: Two tertiary paediatric hospitals in Halifax, Nova Scotia and Salt Lake City, Utah. PARTICIPANTS: Paediatric otolaryngologists, patients and parents during consultation for adenotonsillectomy. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Medical dialogue measures (turn analysis, patient-centredness scores via the Roter Interaction Analysis System) and SDM questionnaires (SDM-Q-9). RESULTS: Turn density was significantly higher for physicians than patients/parents (P < .001), as were total statements (P < .001), and total time talking (P < .001). The opening statement was completed by the physician in 91.5% of interactions and was significantly longer than family opening statements (P = .003). The mean number of informed consent elements addressed per interaction was 4.5 out of 6. The mean patient-centredness score was 0.2 (range 0-0.56). Significant negative correlations between patient-centredness score and physician turn density (r = -.390, P = .002), physician mean turn time (r = -.406, P = .001), total physician statements (r = -.426, P = .001) and total physician speaking time (r = -.313, P = .016) were noted. There were no correlations in SDM questionnaire scores with turn analysis variables, informed consent elements or patient-centredness scores. CONCLUSIONS: Surgeons dominated the consultation in terms of talking, mostly in a unidirectional manner. Neither patient-centredness nor turn analysis correlated with perceptions of SDM from the parents' perspective.

Shared decision-making in older children and parents considering elective adenotonsillectomy.

OBJECTIVES: Shared decision-making describes a collaborative process in which healthcare providers and patients/families make treatment decisions using the best available evidence, while taking into account the patient's values and preferences. The objectives of this study were to assess the level of decisional conflict and shared decision-making experienced by older children and their parents when considering elective adentonsillectomies. DESIGN: A prospective cohort study. SETTING: Paediatric otolaryngology clinic in a teaching hospital. PARTICIPANTS: Participants included 53 children older than 9 years and their parents who underwent consultation for tonsillectomy with or without adenoidectomy. MAIN OUTCOMES MEASURES: Children and parents completed the Decisional Conflict Scale (DCS) and Shared Decision-Making Questionnaire-Patient Version (SDM-Q-9). Surgeons completed the Shared Decision-Making Questionnaire-Physician Version (SDM-Q-Doc). RESULTS: Overall, 10 (19%) parents and 18 (34%) children reported clinically significant decisional conflict. Parents who opted not to proceed with surgery had significantly higher DCS scores than those who decided to proceed with surgery. Both parents and children SDM-Q-9 and total DCS scores were significantly negatively correlated. Physician SDM-Q-Doc and parent total DCS scores were negatively correlated, while parent and physician SDM scores were positively correlated. CONCLUSIONS: Many older children and parents reported significant decisional conflict when considering elective paediatric otolaryngology surgery. Decisional conflict levels for both children and parents decreased with greater perceived levels of shared decision-making. Older children did not appear to discern the same levels of shared decision-making as parents and surgeons. Future research should assess methods to implement shared decision-making into clinical practice for clinicians, parents and children when appropriate.

Socialization of Pain Memories: Parent-Child Reminiscing About Past Painful and Sad Events.

OBJECTIVE: Parent-child reminiscing about past negative events has been linked to a host of developmental outcomes. Previous research has identified two distinct between-parent reminiscing styles, wherein parents who are more elaborative (vs. repetitive) have children with more optimal outcomes. To date, however, research has not examined how parents and children talk about past painful experiences nor compared parent-child reminiscing about past painful versus other distressing events despite key developmental differences in how young children respond to pain versus sadness in others. This study aimed to fill that gap. METHODS: Seventy-eight children aged 4 to 7 years underwent a tonsillectomy. Two weeks postsurgery, children and one of their parents discussed past autobiographical events (i.e., the tonsillectomy, another painful event, a sad event). Parent-child conversations were coded using established coding schemes to capture parental reminiscing style, content, and autonomy support. RESULTS: Findings revealed robust differences in parent-child reminiscing about painful versus sad events. Parents were less elaborative, used less emotionally negative words and explanations, and were less supportive of their children's autonomy while reminiscing about past painful versus sad events. CONCLUSIONS: These findings demonstrate that through reminiscing, parents may socialize children about pain in a way that is different from other distressing events (e.g., sadness). Future research should examine the influence of differential reminiscing about pain versus sadness on developmental and health outcomes.

Patient-centred perioperative mobile application in Cesarean delivery: needs assessment and development.

PURPOSE: Cesarean delivery (CD) is the most commonly performed inpatient surgery in Canada, with 103,425 performed in 2016-2017. Mobile technology can contribute to patient-centred perioperative care. Our aim was to involve patients and anesthesiologists in designing a mobile application to enhance the perioperative care of CD patients. METHOD: We completed an exploratory qualitative study involving three iterative design cycles. Individual structured phone or in-person interviews with CD patients (n = 15) and anesthesiologists (n = 9) were conducted. Thematic analysis was used to 1) assess gaps and opportunities in the anesthesiology care after CD, 2) identify roles and limitations of mobile application technology in bridging perioperative care, and 3) to solicit feedback on a prototype mobile application for the anesthesiology postoperative care of elective CD patients. RESULTS: Patients and anesthesiologists were in favour of adding mobile applications to the interdisciplinary perioperative management of patients undergoing CD, particularly for providing reliable information, identifying and following patients with complications, and research in perioperative outcomes. Medical-legal issues, privacy, workflow, and payment policy frameworks are barriers for mobile technology linking patients and anesthesiologists. Our final prototype was refined to focus on timely, concise education and self-monitoring. CONCLUSION: The participant-driven changes in direction of the prototype showed the importance of involving key stakeholders early. This study provides guidance on further iterative development and implementation of an interdisciplinary mobile platform for patient-centred perioperative care and outcomes research.

RéSUMé: OBJECTIF: L'accouchement par césarienne est la chirurgie avec hospitalisation la plus fréquemment réalisée au Canada, atteignant 103 425 cas en 2016­2017. La technologie mobile pourrait contribuer aux soins périopératoires centrés sur la patiente. Notre objectif était d'impliquer les patientes et les anesthésiologistes pour mettre au point une application mobile afin d'améliorer les soins périopératoires des femmes accouchant par césarienne. MéTHODE: Nous avons réalisé une étude qualitative exploratoire comprenant trois cycles itératifs de conception. Des entretiens individuels structurés par téléphone ou en personne avec des patientes subissant une césarienne (n = 15) et des anesthésiologistes (n = 9) ont été menés. Une analyse thématique a été utilisée pour 1) évaluer les écueils et les opportunités dans les soins anesthésiques après une césarienne, 2) identifier les rôles et les limites de la technologie d'application mobile pour combler les besoins des soins périopératoires, et 3) demander une rétroaction concernant un prototype d'application mobile pour les soins anesthésiques postopératoires des patientes subissant une césarienne planifiée. RéSULTATS: Les patientes et les anesthésiologistes étaient en faveur de l'ajout d'applications mobiles à la prise en charge périopératoire des patientes subissant une césarienne, particulièrement pour offrir des informations fiables, identifier et faire le suivi des patientes souffrant de complications, et effectuer de la recherche sur les pronostics périopératoires. Les questions médicolégales, le respect de la vie privée, la charge de travail et les cadres de politiques de paiement constituent des obstacles à la connexion des patientes et des anesthésiologistes via la technologie mobile. Notre prototype final a été amélioré afin de se concentrer sur des outils de formation concis et opportuns et sur l'auto-monitorage. CONCLUSION: Les changements proposés au prototype par les participants ont démontré l'importance d'impliquer les principaux intéressés tôt dans le processus. Cette étude offre des pistes quant à la mise au point et la mise en œuvre progressives d'une plateforme mobile interdisciplinaire pour des soins périopératoires centrées sur les patients et la recherche sur les pronostics périopératoires.

Essential Content for Discharge Instructions in Pediatric Emergency Care: A Delphi Study.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to identify the 5 most essential discharge instruction content elements that should be communicated to all caregivers of children who present to the emergency department (ED) with asthma, vomiting/diarrhea, abdominal pain, fever, minor head injury, or bronchiolitis. METHODS: A discharge information content list was developed for each illness presentation following a review of the literature. Using a modified Delphi technique, 6 lists were distributed to a panel of experts from EDs across Canada using a secure online survey tool with the goal of achieving the 5 most essential discharge instruction elements. RESULTS: A total of 37 emergency clinicians completed all 4 rounds of the Delphi. Consensus for the final 30 content items ranged from 51.4% to 100%. Items pertaining to diarrhea/vomiting, abdominal pain, fever, and bronchiolitis obtained relatively high levels of consensus for all top 5 items. The majority of items (n = 19 [63.3%]) that reached consensus across the illness presentations were associated with instructions intended to educate caregivers on instances when they should return to the ED department. CONCLUSIONS: Findings from this study provide a better understanding of what should be communicated to caregivers of children who present to the ED with a number of different illness presentations. Results from this study suggest that health care providers agree on the importance of providing information to caregivers regarding when to return to the ED with their child. Reaching consensus among all experts in this study provides insight into the difficulty of standardizing discharge communication in the absence of widely accepted guidelines.

Partnering with parents to advance child health research.

Although patient engagement in research is widely touted as an important foundation for improving the relevance and sustainability of research findings, there is little consensus on how to do it in practice. This article describes our research team's experiences working with and engaging parents throughout the entire research process to reach full partnership in the identification, management, and dissemination of research. Our report of these experiences includes lessons learned along the way regarding how healthcare and research organizations can better support researchers and patients to achieve successful partnerships.

A Multi-Informant Multi-Method Investigation of Family Functioning and Parent-Child Coping During Children's Acute Pain.

Objective: To explore relations between family functioning and child acute pain, including pain ratings, coping, and parent­child behaviors. Methods: Community sample of 171 dyads including one child aged 8­12 years (52% girls) and one parent (79% mothers). Family functioning was assessed via child and parent self-report, and observation during a conflict discussion task. Children and parents rated pain catastrophizing at baseline, and child pain and distress following a cold pressor task (CPT). Parent­child interactions during the CPT were coded for observed behaviors during child pain. Results: Self-report of poorer family functioning predicted greater child and parent pain catastrophizing, and parent distress. Less observed family negativity/conflict and cohesiveness, and greater family focus of problems and parent emotional support predicted more child symptom complaints. Family functioning was not associated with child pain or distress. Conclusions: Family functioning influenced parent and child coping and child behavioral responses, but not the experience, of acute pain.

Development and feasibility testing of the Pediatric Emergency Discharge Interaction Coding Scheme.

BACKGROUND: Discharge communication is an important aspect of high-quality emergency care. This study addresses the gap in knowledge on how to describe discharge communication in a paediatric emergency department (ED). OBJECTIVE: The objective of this feasibility study was to develop and test a coding scheme to characterize discharge communication between health-care providers (HCPs) and caregivers who visit the ED with their children. DESIGN: The Pediatric Emergency Discharge Interaction Coding Scheme (PEDICS) and coding manual were developed following a review of the literature and an iterative refinement process involving HCP observations, inter-rater assessments and team consensus. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: The coding scheme was pilot-tested through observations of HCPs across a range of shifts in one urban paediatric ED. MAIN VARIABLES STUDIED: Overall, 329 patient observations were carried out across 50 observational shifts. Inter-rater reliability was evaluated in 16% of the observations. The final version of the PEDICS contained 41 communication elements. RESULTS: Kappa scores were greater than .60 for the majority of communication elements. The most frequently observed communication elements were under the Introduction node and the least frequently observed were under the Social Concerns node. HCPs initiated the majority of the communication. CONCLUSION: Pediatric Emergency Discharge Interaction Coding Scheme addresses an important gap in the discharge communication literature. The tool is useful for mapping patterns of discharge communication between HCPs and caregivers. Results from our pilot test identified deficits in specific areas of discharge communication that could impact adherence to discharge instructions. The PEDICS would benefit from further testing with a different sample of HCPs.

Prevalence and Predictors of Chronic Pain in Pregnancy and Postpartum.

OBJECTIVE: A clinically relevant number of patients report pain 1 year after vaginal delivery or Caesarean delivery. Study objectives were to identify the incidence of peripartum pain; determine whether pre-existing pain, pregnancy pain, or pain 2 weeks postpartum predicts pain at 3 months; and to identify whether delivery mode, epidural analgesia use, or delivery complications predict non-genito-pelvic pain postpartum. METHODS: Primiparous women at 30 to 36 weeks GA with an uncomplicated singleton pregnancy were recruited from a large perinatal clinic. Participants completed questionnaires on sociodemographics and non-genito-pelvic pain. Questionnaires were completed in the perinatal clinic and then electronically 2 weeks and 3 months postpartum. RESULTS: Of the 133 women included, 50 patients (38%) had a chronic pain condition or pain prior to pregnancy, whereas 73 patients (55%) reported pain in pregnancy. Pain was present 2 weeks postpartum in 57 patients (43%) and 3 months postpartum in 33 patients (25%). Patients with pre-existing pain were more likely to experience pain 2 weeks postpartum (P = 0.006), and patients with pain 2 weeks postpartum were more likely to have pain 3 months postpartum (P = 0.005). Women who had a Caesarean delivery (P < 0.001) were more likely to have non-genito-pelvic pain at 2 weeks but not 3 months postpartum. CONCLUSIONS: Women with pain 2 weeks postpartum were significantly more likely to have pain at 3 months. Further investigation is required to determine whether pre-existing pain, pain in pregnancy, or pain at 2 weeks postpartum can adequately predict the likelihood of chronic pain.

Understanding discharge communication behaviours in a pediatric emergency care context: a mixed methods observation study protocol.

BACKGROUND: One of the most important transitions in the continuum of care for children is discharge to home. Optimal discharge communication between healthcare providers and caregivers (e.g., parents or other guardians) who present to the emergency department (ED) with their children is not well understood. The lack of policies and considerable variation in practice regarding discharge communication in pediatric EDs pose a quality and safety risk for children and their parents. METHODS: The aim of this mixed methods study is to better understand the process and structure of discharge communication in a pediatric ED context to contribute to the design and development of discharge communication interventions. We will use surveys, administrative data and real-time video observation to characterize discharge communication for six common illness presentations in a pediatric ED: (1) asthma, (2) bronchiolitis, (3) abdominal pain, (4) fever, (5) diarrhea and vomiting, and (6) minor head injury. Participants will be recruited from one of two urban pediatric EDs in Canada. Video recordings will be analyzed using Observer XT. We will use logistic regression to identify potential demographic and visit characteristic cofounders and multivariate logistic regression to examine association between verbal and non-verbal behaviours and parent recall and comprehension. DISCUSSION: Video recording of discharge communication will provide an opportunity to capture important data such as temporality, sequence and non-verbal behaviours that might influence the communication process. Given the importance of better characterizing discharge communication to identify potential barriers and enablers, we anticipate that the findings from this study will contribute to the development of more effective discharge communication policies and interventions.

Women's Experiences With Flap Failure After Autologous Breast Reconstruction: A Qualitative Analysis.

Clinical experience suggests that flap failure after autologous breast reconstruction can be a devastating experience for women. Previous research has examined women's experiences with autologous breast reconstruction with and without complications, and patients' experiences with suboptimal outcomes from other medical procedures. The authors aimed to examine the psychosocial experience of flap failure from the patient's perspective. Seven women who had experienced unilateral flap failure after deep inferior epigastric perforator flap surgery in the past 12 years completed semistructured interviews about their breast cancer treatments, their experiences with flap failure, the impact of flap failure on their lives, and the coping strategies they used. Interpretive phenomenological analysis, a type of qualitative analysis that provides an in-depth account of participant's experiences and their meanings, was used to analyze the interview data. From these data, patient-derived recommendations were developed for surgeons caring for women who have experienced flap failure. Three main themes (6 subthemes) emerged: coming to terms with flap failure (coping with emotions, body dissatisfaction); making meaning of flap failure experience (questioning, relationship with surgeon); and care providers acknowledging the emotional experience of flap failure (experience of being treated "mechanically," suggestions for improvement). In conclusion, flap failure in breast reconstruction is an emotionally difficult experience for women. Although there are similarities to other populations of patients experiencing suboptimal outcomes from medical procedures, there are also unique aspects of the flap failure experience. A better understanding of women's experiences with flap failure will assist in providing more appropriate supports.

Mindfulness for adolescent chronic pain: a pilot feasibility study.

OBJECTIVE: Chronic pain is common in paediatric populations and many patients do not respond to the currently available evidence-based treatments. Mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) have a growing evidence-base in adults, but evidence is limited in youth with chronic pain. METHODS: We conducted an open-label pilot study to test the feasibility of an 8-week MBI for this population. RESULTS: Seven adolescents (age range 14-17; median age 15; six female) completed the intervention. There were no dropouts. Median class attendance was seven of eight total sessions (SD = 0.76). Only one (14.3%) participant reported not finding it useful; five (71.4%) reported that they would recommend it to a friend; and the remaining two (28.6%) reported "maybe". There was no worsening of internalizing symptoms. Secondary outcomes included significant reduction of pain intensity, which was maintained at three-month follow-up. Somatic symptoms and functional disability were both non-significantly lower immediately following the intervention; but were significantly improved at three-month follow-up. CONCLUSION: An eight-week group MBI is a feasible intervention for adolescents with chronic pain, and warrants further investigation as a potential alternative to cognitive behavioural therapy in this population.

Aromatherapy for the treatment of PONV in children: a pilot RCT.

BACKGROUND: Postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) is one of the most common postoperative complications of general anesthesia in pediatrics. Aromatherapy has been shown to be effective in treating PONV in adults. Given the encouraging results of the adult studies, we planned to determine feasibility of doing a large-scale study in the pediatric population. METHODS: Our group conducted a pilot randomized controlled trial examining the effect of aromatherapy on post-operative nausea and vomiting in patients 4-16 undergoing ambulatory surgery at a single center. Nausea was defined as a score of 4/10 on the Baxter Retching Faces Scale (BARF scale). A clinically significant reduction was defined as a two-point reduction in Nausea. Post operatively children were administered the BARF scale in 15 min internals until discharge home or until nausea score of 4/10 or greater. Children with nausea were randomized to saline placebo group or aromatherapy QueaseEase™ (Soothing Scents, Inc, Enterprise, AL: blend of ginger, lavender, mint and spearmint). Nausea scores were recorded post intervention. RESULTS: A total of 162 subjects were screened for inclusion in the study. Randomization occurred in 41 subjects of which 39 were included in the final analysis. For the primary outcome, 14/18 (78 %) of controls reached primary outcome compared to 19/21 (90 %) in the aromatherapy group (p = 0.39, Eta 0.175). Other outcomes included use of antiemetic in PACU (control 44 %, aromatherapy 52 % P = 0.75, Eta 0.08), emesis (Control 11 %, 9 % aromatherapy, P = 0.87, Eta = 0.03). There was a statistically significant difference in whether subjects continued to use the intervention (control 28 %, aromatherapy 66 %, p-value 0.048, Eta 0.33). CONCLUSION: Aromatherapy had a small non-significant effect size in treating postoperative nausea and vomiting compared with control. A large-scale randomized control trial would not be feasible at our institution and would be of doubtful utility. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02663154 .

Parents' experiences of managing their child's postoperative pain at home: an exploratory qualitative study.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES: To understand parents' experiences of managing their child's postoperative pain at home. BACKGROUND: Recent changes in children's health care services often shift the responsibility of managing children's postoperative pain to parents. Although pain management is important for good postoperative outcomes, it can be a challenging task for families, and children's pain is often under-managed. DESIGN: This qualitative study used semi-structured interviews to explore parents' experiences of managing their child's postoperative pain at home. METHODS: Participants were parents of 10 typically developing 5- and 6-year olds, who underwent (adeno)tonsillectomy, and experienced no complications leading to hospitalisation in the postoperative period. One-on-one interviews were conducted with parents within three months of their child's surgery. Interviews were transcribed verbatim and content analysis was used to identify themes in parents' experiences. RESULTS: All children experienced some postoperative pain. Parents' experiences of managing their child's pain were impacted by balancing the pros and cons of administering analgesic medications, managing the emotional and psychological effects of their child's pain, as well as parents' information needs. CONCLUSIONS: Most parents' information needs were met yet they still struggled to manage their child's pain. These findings provide insight into some of the barriers that make this process challenging for many families, and what health care centres can do to help support parents manage their child's postoperative pain at home. RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE: The results of this study may aid in the design of interventions that will support parents when managing their child's postoperative pain at home and thus improve children's experiences.

Children's Immediate Postoperative Distress and Mothers' and Fathers' Touch Behaviors.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined mothers' and fathers' use of child-directed touch in the postanesthesia care unit. METHODS: In all, 142 mothers and 112 fathers of 143 children aged 2-11 years undergoing outpatient surgery participated. Parent touch (instrumental, empathic) and child distress were coded. Mothers' and fathers' rates of touch were compared, and interrelations between touch and child distress were examined (overall and sequentially). RESULTS: The proportion of mothers and fathers who used touch did not differ, but mothers' rates of touch were higher than fathers'. Parental instrumental touch and mothers embracing touch were positively correlated with children's distress. Mothers were more likely to use embracing touch in response to children's distress than at any other time. CONCLUSIONS: Results point to potential differences in mothers' and fathers' roles in the postoperative setting, and potentially different functions of touch. Results suggest that mothers may provide embracing touch to soothe or prevent children's distress.

Developing and modifying behavioral coding schemes in pediatric psychology: a practical guide.

OBJECTIVES: To provide a concise and practical guide to the development, modification, and use of behavioral coding schemes for observational data in pediatric psychology. METHODS: This article provides a review of relevant literature and experience in developing and refining behavioral coding schemes. RESULTS: A step-by-step guide to developing and/or modifying behavioral coding schemes is provided. Major steps include refining a research question, developing or refining the coding manual, piloting and refining the coding manual, and implementing the coding scheme. Major tasks within each step are discussed, and pediatric psychology examples are provided throughout. CONCLUSIONS: Behavioral coding can be a complex and time-intensive process, but the approach is invaluable in allowing researchers to address clinically relevant research questions in ways that would not otherwise be possible.

Preparing Parents to Be Present for Their Child's Anesthesia Induction: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study is to compare the effectiveness of a brief preparation intervention for parental presence during induction of anesthesia (PPIA preparation) with a PPIA with standard preparation (PPIA standard). METHODS: Ninety-three children, aged 2 to 10 years, undergoing elective surgery at a children's hospital participated together with their parents. Parents were randomly assigned to receive either PPIA preparation or PPIA standard before their children's induction of anesthesia. Children of parents assigned to each group were compared on measures of preoperative anxiety, cooperation at induction, emergence delirium, and postoperative pain. Parents were compared on measures of state anxiety and self-efficacy about their role in the operating room (OR). RESULTS: The effectiveness of parental presence in reducing children's preoperative anxiety was not improved by the intervention at the holding stage (P =0.15, Wilcoxon Mann-Whitney odds [WMWodds; 95% confidence interval {CI}] = 1.41 [0.75-3.10]), the point at which the family left the holding area (P = 0.39, WMWodds [95% CI] = 1.18 [0.60-2.45]), the point that they entered the OR (P =0.28, WMWodds [95% CI] = 1.23 [0.65-2.67]), or the point at which the anesthesia mask was introduced (P = 1.3, WMWodds [95% CI] = 1.23 [0.64-2.63]). However, parents who received PPIA preparation trended toward greater self-efficacy about their role in the OR than those who received PPIA standard (P = 0.03, WMWodds [95% CI] = 1.69 [1.07-2.87]). CONCLUSIONS: A brief, video-based intervention aimed at preparing parents to be present for their child's anesthesia induction was not successful in reducing the children's preoperative anxiety. However, it is unclear whether parents included in this study actually performed as instructed in the intervention to reduce their children's anxiety. Future research should monitor parent behavior and support parental performance to reduce their children's preoperative anxiety.