Shift of the insoluble content of the proteome in the aging mouse brain.

During aging, the cellular response to unfolded proteins is believed to decline, resulting in diminished proteostasis. In model organisms, such as Caenorhabditis elegans, proteostatic decline with age has been linked to proteome solubility shifts and the onset of protein aggregation. However, this correlation has not been extensively characterized in aging mammals. To uncover age-dependent changes in the insoluble portion of a mammalian proteome, we analyzed the detergent-insoluble fraction of mouse brain tissue by mass spectrometry. We identified a group of 171 proteins, including the small heat shock protein α-crystallin, that become enriched in the detergent-insoluble fraction obtained from old mice. To enhance our ability to detect features associated with proteins in that fraction, we complemented our data with a meta-analysis of studies reporting the detergent-insoluble proteins in various mouse models of aging and neurodegeneration. Strikingly, insoluble proteins from young and old mice are distinct in several features in our study and across the collected literature data. In younger mice, proteins are more likely to be disordered, part of membraneless organelles, and involved in RNA binding. These traits become less prominent with age, as an increased number of structured proteins enter the pellet fraction. This analysis suggests that age-related changes to proteome organization lead a group of proteins with specific features to become detergent-insoluble. Importantly, these features are not consistent with those associated with proteins driving membraneless organelle formation. We see no evidence in our system of a general increase of condensate proteins in the detergent-insoluble fraction with age.

Digital plasmonic holography with iterative phase retrieval for sensing.

Propagating surface plasmon waves have been used for many applications including imaging and sensing. However, direct in-plane imaging of micro-objects with surface plasmon waves suffers from the lack of simple, two-dimensional lenses, mirrors, and other optical elements. In this paper, we apply lensless digital holographic techniques and leakage radiation microscopy to achieve in-plane surface imaging with propagating surface plasmon waves. As plasmons propagate in two-dimensions and scatter from various objects, a hologram is formed over the surface. Iterative phase retrieval techniques applied to this hologram remove twin image interference for high-resolution in-plane imaging and enable further applications in real-time plasmonic phase sensing.

MicroRNAs in Pancreatic Cancer: biomarkers, prognostic, and therapeutic modulators.

A severe lack of early diagnosis coupled with resistance to most available therapeutic options renders pancreatic cancer as a major clinical concern. The limited efficacy of current treatments necessitates the development of novel therapeutic strategies that are based on an understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in pancreatic cancer progression. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are non-coding small RNAs that regulate the expression of multiple proteins in the post-translation process and thus have promise as biomarkers, prognostic agents, and as advanced pancreatic therapies. Profiling of deregulated miRNAs in pancreatic cancer can correlate to diagnosis, indicate optimal treatment and predict response to therapy. Furthermore, understanding the main effector genes in pancreatic cancer along with downstream pathways can identify possible miRNAs as therapeutic candidates. Additionally, obstacles to the translation of miRNAs into the clinic are also considered. Distinct miRNA expression profiles can correlate to stages of malignant pancreatic disease, and hold potential as biomarkers, prognostic markers and clinical targets. However, a limited understanding and validation of the specific role of such miRNAs stunts clinical application. Target prediction using algorithms provides a wide range of possible targets, but these miRNAs still require validation through pre-clinical studies to determine the knock-on genetic effects.

DNA vaccination for cervical cancer; a novel technology platform of RALA mediated gene delivery via polymeric microneedles.

HPV subtypes (16, 18) are associated with the development of cervical cancer, with oncoproteins E6 and E7 responsible for pathogenesis. The goal of this study was to evaluate our 'smart system' technology platform for DNA vaccination against cervical cancer. The vaccination platform brings together two main components; a peptide RALA which condenses DNA into cationic nanoparticles (NPs), and a polymeric polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) microneedle (MN) patch for cutaneous delivery of the loaded NPs. RALA condensed E6/E7 DNA into NPs not exceeding 100nm in diameter, and afforded the DNA protection from degradation in PVP. Sera from mice vaccinated with MN/RALA-E6/E7 were richer in E6/E7-specific IgGs, displayed a greater T-cell-mediated TC-1 cytotoxicity and contained more IFN-γ than sera from mice that received NPs intramuscularly. More importantly, MN/RALA-E6/E7 delayed TC-1 tumor initiation in a prophylactic model, and slowed tumor growth in a therapeutic model of vaccination, and was more potent than intramuscular vaccination.

Meis1 establishes the pre-hemogenic endothelial state prior to Runx1 expression.

Hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) originate from an endothelial-to-hematopoietic transition (EHT) during embryogenesis. Characterization of early hemogenic endothelial (HE) cells is required to understand what drives hemogenic specification and to accurately define cells capable of undergoing EHT. Using Cellular Indexing of Transcriptomes and Epitopes by Sequencing (CITE-seq), we define the early subpopulation of pre-HE cells based on both surface markers and transcriptomes. We identify the transcription factor Meis1 as an essential regulator of hemogenic cell specification in the embryo prior to Runx1 expression. Meis1 is expressed at the earliest stages of EHT and distinguishes pre-HE cells primed towards the hemogenic trajectory from the arterial endothelial cells that continue towards a vascular fate. Endothelial-specific deletion of Meis1 impairs the formation of functional Runx1-expressing HE which significantly impedes the emergence of pre-HSPC via EHT. Our findings implicate Meis1 in a critical fate-determining step for establishing EHT potential in endothelial cells.

Rational design and characterisation of an amphipathic cell penetrating peptide for non-viral gene delivery.

RALA is a cationic amphipathic peptide which has shown great promise as an efficient, multifunctional delivery system for the delivery of nucleic acids. Rational peptide design was utilised in this study to understand the essential amino acids required for delivery and if any improvements to the RALA peptide could be made. Six amphipathic peptides were synthesised with strategic sequences and amino acid substitutions to reduce peptide sequence, while maintaining the functional characteristics of RALA including amphipathicity, alpha-helicity and pH responsiveness for endosomal escape. Data demonstrated that all six peptides complexed pEGFP-N1 to produce cationic nanoparticles <200 nm in diameter, but not all peptides resulted in successful transfection; indicating the influence of peptide design for cellular uptake and endosomal escape. Pep2, produced nanoparticles with similar characteristics and transfection efficiency to the parent peptide, RALA. However, Pep2 had issues with toxicity and a lack of pH-responsive alpha-helcity. Therefore, RALA remains the superior sequence for non-toxic gene delivery.

Rational design and characterisation of a linear cell penetrating peptide for non-viral gene delivery.

The design of a non-viral gene delivery system that can release a functional nucleic acid at the intracellular destination site is an exciting but also challenging proposition. The ideal gene delivery vector must be non-toxic, non-immunogenic, overcome extra- and intra-cellular barriers, protect the nucleic acid cargo from degradation with stability over a range of temperatures. A new 15 amino acid linear peptide termed CHAT was designed in this study with the goal of delivering DNA with high efficiency into cells in vitro and tissues in vivo. Rational design involved incorporation of key amino acids including arginine for nucleic acid complexation and cellular uptake, tryptophan to enhance hydrophobic interaction with cell membranes, histidine to facilitate endosomal escape and cysteine for stability and controlled cargo release. Six linear peptides were synthesised with strategic sequences and amino acid substitutions. Data demonstrated that all six peptides complexed pDNA to produce cationic nanoparticles less than 200 nm in diameter, but not all peptides resulted in successful transfection; indicating the influence of peptide design for endosomal escape. Peptide 4, now termed CHAT, was non-cytotoxic, traversed the plasma membrane of breast and prostate cancer cell lines, and elicited reporter-gene expression following intra-tumoural and intravenous delivery in vivo. CHAT presents an exciting new peptide for the delivery of nucleic acid therapeutics.

DNA vaccination via RALA nanoparticles in a microneedle delivery system induces a potent immune response against the endogenous prostate cancer stem cell antigen.

Castrate resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) remains a major challenge for healthcare professionals. Immunotherapeutic approaches, including DNA vaccination, hold the potential to harness the host's own immune system to mount a cell-mediated, anti-tumour response, capable of clearing disseminated tumour deposits. These anti-cancer vaccines represent a promising strategy for patients with advanced disease, however, to date DNA vaccines have demonstrated limited efficacy in clinical trials, owing to the lack of a suitable DNA delivery system. This study was designed to evaluate the efficacy of a two-tier delivery system incorporating cationic RALA/pDNA nanoparticles (NPs) into a dissolvable microneedle (MN) patch for the purposes of DNA vaccination against prostate cancer. Application of NP-loaded MN patches successfully resulted in endogenous production of the encoded Prostate Stem Cell Antigen (PSCA). Furthermore, immunisation with RALA/pPSCA loaded MNs elicited a tumour-specific immune response against TRAMP-C1 tumours ex vivo. Finally, vaccination with RALA/pPSCA loaded MNs demonstrated anti-tumour activity in both prophylactic and therapeutic prostate cancer models in vivo. This is further evidence that this two-tier MN delivery system is a robust platform for prostate cancer DNA vaccination. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: This research describes the development and utilisation of our unique microneedle (MN) DNA delivery system, which enables penetration through the stratum corneum and deposition of the DNA within the highly immunogenic skin layers via a dissolvable MN matrix, and facilitates cellular uptake via complexation of pDNA cargo into nanoparticles (NPs) with the RALA delivery peptide. We report for the first time on using the NP-MN platform to immunise mice with encoded Prostate Stem Cell Antigen (mPSCA) for prostate cancer DNA vaccination. Application of the NP-MN system resulted in local mPSCA expression in vivo. Furthermore, immunisation with the NP-MN system induced a tumour-specific cellular immune response, and inhibited the growth of TRAMP-C1 prostate tumours in both prophylactic and therapeutic challenge models in vivo.

DNA vaccination for cervical cancer: Strategic optimisation of RALA mediated gene delivery from a biodegradable microneedle system.

Dissolvable microneedles can be employed to deliver DNA to antigen presenting cells within the skin. However, this technology faces two main challenges: the poor transfection efficacy of pDNA following release from the microneedle matrix, and the limited loading capacity of the micron-scale devices. Two-tier delivery systems combining microneedle platforms and DNA delivery vectors have increased efficacy but the challenge of increasing the loading capacity remains. This study utilised lyophilisation to increase the loading of RALA/pDNA nanoparticles within dissolvable PVA microneedles. As a result, delivery was significantly enhanced in vivo into an appropriate range for DNA vaccination (∼50 µg per array). Furthermore, modifying the manufacturing process was not detrimental to the microneedle mechanical properties or cargo functionality. It was demonstrated that arrays retained mechanical and functional stability over short term storage, and were able to elicit gene expression in vitro and in vivo. Finally, treatment with this novel formulation significantly retarded the growth of established tumours, and proved superior to standard intramuscular injection in a preclinical model of cervical cancer.

Dissolving microneedles for DNA vaccination: Improving functionality via polymer characterization and RALA complexation.

DNA vaccination holds the potential to treat or prevent nearly any immunogenic disease, including cancer. To date, these vaccines have demonstrated limited immunogenicity in vivo due to the absence of a suitable delivery system which can protect DNA from degradation and improve transfection efficiencies in vivo. Recently, microneedles have been described as a novel physical delivery technology to enhance DNA vaccine immunogenicity. Of these devices, dissolvable microneedles promise a safe, pain-free delivery system which may simultaneously improve DNA stability within a solid matrix and increase DNA delivery compared to solid arrays. However, to date little work has directly compared the suitability of different dissolvable matrices for formulation of DNA-loaded microneedles. Therefore, the current study examined the ability of 4 polymers to formulate mechanically robust, functional DNA loaded dissolvable microneedles. Additionally, complexation of DNA to a cationic delivery peptide, RALA, prior to incorporation into the dissolvable matrix was explored as a means to improve transfection efficacies following release from the polymer matrix. Our data demonstrates that DNA is degraded following incorporation into PVP, but not PVA matrices. The complexation of DNA to RALA prior to incorporation into polymers resulted in higher recovery from dissolvable matrices, and increased transfection efficiencies in vitro. Additionally, RALA/DNA nanoparticles released from dissolvable PVA matrices demonstrated up to 10-fold higher transfection efficiencies than the corresponding complexes released from PVP matrices, indicating that PVA is a superior polymer for this microneedle application.

DNA vaccination for prostate cancer: key concepts and considerations.

While locally confined prostate cancer is associated with a low five year mortality rate, advanced or metastatic disease remains a major challenge for healthcare professionals to treat and is usually terminal. As such, there is a need for the development of new, efficacious therapies for prostate cancer. Immunotherapy represents a promising approach where the host's immune system is harnessed to mount an anti-tumour effect, and the licensing of the first prostate cancer specific immunotherapy in 2010 has opened the door for other immunotherapies to gain regulatory approval. Among these strategies DNA vaccines are an attractive option in terms of their ability to elicit a highly specific, potent and wide-sweeping immune response. Several DNA vaccines have been tested for prostate cancer and while they have demonstrated a good safety profile they have faced problems with low efficacy and immunogenicity compared to other immunotherapeutic approaches. This review focuses on the positive aspects of DNA vaccines for prostate cancer that have been assessed in preclinical and clinical trials thus far and examines the key considerations that must be employed to improve the efficacy and immunogenicity of these vaccines.

Development and characterization of self-assembling nanoparticles using a bio-inspired amphipathic peptide for gene delivery.

The design of a non-viral gene delivery vehicle capable of delivering and releasing a functional nucleic acid cargo intracellularly remains a formidable challenge. For systemic gene therapy to be successful a delivery vehicle is required that protects the nucleic acid cargo from enzymatic degradation, extravasates from the vasculature, traverses the cell membrane, disrupts the endosomal vesicles and unloads the cargo at its destination site, namely the nucleus for the purposes of gene delivery. This manuscript reports the extensive investigation of a novel amphipathic peptide composed of repeating RALA units capable of overcoming the biological barriers to gene delivery both in vitro and in vivo. Our data demonstrates the spontaneous self-assembly of cationic DNA-loaded nanoparticles when the peptide is complexed with pDNA. Nanoparticles were <100nm, were stable in the presence of serum and were fusogenic in nature, with increased peptide α-helicity at a lower pH. Nanoparticles proved to be non-cytotoxic, readily traversed the plasma membrane of both cancer and fibroblast cell lines and elicited reporter-gene expression following intravenous delivery in vivo. The results of this study indicate that RALA presents an exciting delivery platform for the systemic delivery of nucleic acid therapeutics.