Isolated Cervical Dystonia: Diagnosis and Classification.

This document presents a consensus on the diagnosis and classification of isolated cervical dystonia (iCD) with a review of proposed terminology. The International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society Dystonia Study Group convened a panel of experts to review the main clinical and diagnostic issues related to iCD and to arrive at a consensus on diagnostic criteria and classification. These criteria are intended for use in clinical research, but also may be used to guide clinical practice. The benchmark is expert clinical observation and evaluation. The criteria aim to systematize the use of terminology as well as the diagnostic process, to make it reproducible across centers and applicable by expert and non-expert clinicians. Although motor abnormalities remain central, increasing recognition has been given to nonmotor manifestations, which are incorporated into the current criteria. Three iCD presentations are described in some detail: idiopathic (focal or segmental) iCD, genetic iCD, and acquired iCD. The relationship between iCD and isolated head tremor is also reviewed. Recognition of idiopathic iCD has two levels of certainty, definite or probable, supported by specific diagnostic criteria. Although a probable diagnosis is appropriate for clinical practice, a higher diagnostic level may be required for specific research studies. The consensus retains elements proven valuable in previous criteria and omits aspects that are no longer justified, thereby encapsulating diagnosis according to current knowledge. As understanding of iCD expands, these criteria will need continuous revision to accommodate new advances. © 2023 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Determinants of gait dystonia severity in cerebral palsy.

AIM: To determine the movement features governing expert assessment of gait dystonia severity in individuals with cerebral palsy (CP). METHOD: In this prospective cohort study, three movement disorder neurologists graded lower extremity dystonia severity in gait videos of individuals with CP using a 10-point Likert-like scale. Using conventional content analysis, we determined the features experts cited when grading dystonia severity. Then, using open-source pose estimation techniques, we determined gait variable analogs of these expert-cited features correlating with their assessments of dystonia severity. RESULTS: Experts assessed videos from 116 participants (46 with dystonia aged 15 years [SD 3] and 70 without dystonia aged 15 years [SD 2], both groups ranging 10-20 years old and 50% male). Variable limb adduction was most commonly cited by experts when identifying dystonia, comprising 60% of expert statements. Effect on gait (regularity, stability, trajectory, speed) and dystonia amplitude were common features experts used to determine dystonia severity, comprising 19% and 13% of statements respectively. Gait variables assessing adduction variability and amplitude (inter-ankle distance variance and foot adduction amplitude) were significantly correlated with expert assessment of dystonia severity (multiple linear regression, p < 0.001). INTERPRETATION: Adduction variability and amplitude are quantifiable gait features that correlate with expert-determined gait dystonia severity in individuals with CP. Consideration of these features could help optimize and standardize the clinical assessment of gait dystonia severity in individuals with CP.

Differentiating tardive dyskinesia: a video-based review of antipsychotic-induced movement disorders in clinical practice.

Accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment of tardive dyskinesia (TD) are imperative, as its symptoms can be highly disruptive to both patients and their caregivers. Misdiagnosis can lead to incorrect interventions with suboptimal or even deleterious results. To aid in the identification and differentiation of TD in the psychiatric practice setting, we review its clinical features and movement phenomenology, as well as those of other antipsychotic-induced movement disorders, with accompanying links to illustrative videos. Exposure to dopamine receptor blocking agents (DRBAs) such as antipsychotics or antiemetics is associated with a spectrum of movement disorders including TD. The differential diagnosis of TD is based on history of DRBA exposure, recent discontinuation or dose reduction of a DRBA, and movement phenomenology. Common diagnostic challenges are the abnormal behaviors and dyskinesias associated with advanced age or chronic mental illness, and other movement disorders associated with DRBA therapy, such as akathisia, parkinsonian tremor, and tremor related to use of mood stabilizing agents (eg, lithium, divalproex). Duration of exposure may help rule out acute drug-induced syndromes such as acute dystonia or acute/subacute akathisia. Another important consideration is the potential for TD to present together with other drug-induced movement disorders (eg, parkinsonism, parkinsonian tremor, and postural tremor from mood stabilizers) in the same patient, which can complicate both diagnosis and management. After documentation of the phenomenology, severity, and distribution of TD movements, treatment options should be reviewed with the patient and caregivers.

Solriamfetol for Excessive Daytime Sleepiness in Parkinson's Disease: Phase 2 Proof-of-Concept Trial.

BACKGROUND: Solriamfetol is approved (US and EU) for excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS) in narcolepsy and obstructive sleep apnea. OBJECTIVES: Evaluate solriamfetol safety/efficacy for EDS in Parkinson's disease (PD). METHODS: Phase 2, double-blind, 4-week, crossover trial: adults with PD and EDS were randomized to sequence A (placebo, solriamfetol 75, 150, 300 mg/d), B (solriamfetol 75, 150, 300 mg/d, placebo), or C (placebo). Outcomes (safety/tolerability [primary]; Epworth Sleepiness Scale [ESS]; Maintenance of Wakefulness Test [MWT]) were assessed weekly. P values are nominal. RESULTS: Common adverse events (n = 66): nausea (10.7%), dizziness (7.1%), dry mouth (7.1%), headache (7.1%), anxiety (5.4%), constipation (5.4%), dyspepsia (5.4%). ESS decreased both placebo (-4.78) and solriamfetol (-4.82 to -5.72; P > 0.05). MWT improved dose-dependently with solriamfetol, increasing by 5.05 minutes with 300 mg relative to placebo (P = 0.0098). CONCLUSIONS: Safety/tolerability was consistent with solriamfetol's known profile. There were no significant improvements on ESS; MWT results suggest possible benefit with solriamfetol in PD. © 2021 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Fosmetpantotenate Randomized Controlled Trial in Pantothenate Kinase-Associated Neurodegeneration.

BACKGROUND: Pantothenate kinase-associated neurodegeneration (PKAN) currently has no approved treatments. OBJECTIVES: The Fosmetpantotenate Replacement Therapy pivotal trial examined whether treatment with fosmetpantotenate improves PKAN symptoms and stabilizes disease progression. METHODS: This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter study evaluated fosmetpantotenate, 300 mg oral dose three times daily, versus placebo over a 24-week double-blind period. Patients with pathogenic variants of PANK2, aged 6 to 65 years, with a score ≥6 on the PKAN-Activities of Daily Living (PKAN-ADL) scale were enrolled. Patients were randomized to active (fosmetpantotenate) or placebo treatment, stratified by weight and age. The primary efficacy endpoint was change from baseline at week 24 in PKAN-ADL. RESULTS: Between July 23, 2017, and December 18, 2018, 84 patients were randomized (fosmetpantotenate: n = 41; placebo: n = 43); all 84 patients were included in the analyses. Six patients in the placebo group discontinued treatment; two had worsening dystonia, two had poor compliance, and two died of PKAN-related complications (aspiration during feeding and disease progression with respiratory failure, respectively). Fosmetpantotenate and placebo group PKAN-ADL mean (standard deviation) scores were 28.2 (11.4) and 27.4 (11.5) at baseline, respectively, and were 26.9 (12.5) and 24.5 (11.8) at week 24, respectively. The difference in least square mean (95% confidence interval) at week 24 between fosmetpantotenate and placebo was -0.09 (-1.69 to 1.51; P = 0.9115). The overall incidence of treatment-emergent serious adverse events was similar in the fosmetpantotenate (8/41; 19.5%) and placebo (6/43; 14.0%) groups. CONCLUSIONS: Treatment with fosmetpantotenate was safe but did not improve function assessed by the PKAN-ADL in patients with PKAN. © 2020 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Cervical dystonia incidence and diagnostic delay in a multiethnic population.

BACKGROUND: Current cervical dystonia (CD) incidence estimates are based on small numbers in relatively ethnically homogenous populations. The frequency and consequences of delayed CD diagnosis is poorly characterized. OBJECTIVES: To determine CD incidence and characterize CD diagnostic delay within a large, multiethnic integrated health maintenance organization. METHODS: We identified incident CD cases using electronic medical records and multistage screening of more than 3 million Kaiser Permanente Northern California members from January 1, 2003, to December 31, 2007. A final diagnosis was made by movement disorders specialist consensus. Diagnostic delay was measured by questionnaire and health utilization data. Incidence rates were estimated assuming a Poisson distribution of cases and directly standardized to the 2000 U.S. census. Multivariate logistic regression models were employed to assess diagnoses and behaviors preceding CD compared with matched controls, adjusting for age, sex, and membership duration. RESULTS: CD incidence was 1.18/100,000 person-years (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.35-2.0; women, 1.81; men, 0.52) based on 200 cases over 15.4 million person-years. Incidence increased with age. Half of the CD patients interviewed reported diagnostic delay. Diagnoses more common in CD patients before the index date included essential tremor (odds ratio [OR] 68.1; 95% CI, 28.2-164.5), cervical disc disease (OR 3.83; 95% CI, 2.8-5.2), neck sprain/strain (OR 2.77; 95% CI, 1.99-3.62), anxiety (OR 2.24; 95% CI, 1.63-3.11) and depression (OR 1.94; 95% CI, 1.4-2.68). CONCLUSIONS: CD incidence is greater in women and increases with age. Diagnostic delay is common and associated with adverse effects. © 2019 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Neurite orientation dispersion and density imaging (NODDI) and free-water imaging in Parkinsonism.

Neurite orientation dispersion and density imaging (NODDI) uses a three-compartment model to probe brain tissue microstructure, whereas free-water (FW) imaging models two-compartments. It is unknown if NODDI detects more disease-specific effects related to neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease (PD) and atypical Parkinsonism. We acquired multi- and single-shell diffusion imaging at 3 Tesla across two sites. NODDI (using multi-shell; isotropic volume [Viso]; intracellular volume [Vic]; orientation dispersion [ODI]) and FW imaging (using single-shell; FW; free-water corrected fractional anisotropy [FAt]) were compared with 44 PD, 21 multiple system atrophy Parkinsonian variant (MSAp), 26 progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP), and 24 healthy control subjects in the basal ganglia, midbrain/thalamus, cerebellum, and corpus callosum. There was elevated Viso in posterior substantia nigra across Parkinsonisms, and Viso, Vic, and ODI were altered in MSAp and PSP in the striatum, globus pallidus, midbrain, thalamus, cerebellum, and corpus callosum relative to controls. The mean effect size across regions for Viso was 0.163, ODI 0.131, Vic 0.122, FW 0.359, and FAt 0.125, with extracellular compartments having the greatest effect size. A key question addressed was if these techniques discriminate PD and atypical Parkinsonism. Both NODDI (AUC: 0.945) and FW imaging (AUC: 0.969) had high accuracy, with no significant difference between models. This study provides new evidence that NODDI and FW imaging offer similar discriminability between PD and atypical Parkinsonism, and FW had higher effect sizes for detecting Parkinsonism within regions across the basal ganglia and cerebellum.

A Phase 3, 1-Year, Open-Label Trial of Valbenazine in Adults With Tardive Dyskinesia.

PURPOSE/BACKGROUND: Valbenazine is approved to treat tardive dyskinesia (TD) in adults. KINECT 4 (NCT02405091) was conducted to explore the long-term effects of once-daily valbenazine in patients with TD. METHODS/PROCEDURES: The study included a 48-week, open-label treatment period and 4-week washout. Dosing was initiated at 40 mg/d, with escalation to 80 mg/d at week 4 based on efficacy and tolerability. Standard safety methods were applied, including treatment-emergent adverse event (TEAE) reporting. Valbenazine effects on TD were assessed using the Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale (AIMS), Clinical Global Impression of Change-TD, and Patient Global Impression of Change. FINDINGS/RESULTS: After week 4, <15% of all participants had a serious TEAE (13.7%) or TEAE leading to discontinuation (11.8%). Participants experienced TD improvements during long-term treatment as indicated by mean change from baseline to week 48 in AIMS total score (sum of items 1-7, evaluated by site raters) with valbenazine 40 mg/d (-10.2 [n = 45]) or 80 mg/d (-11.0 [n = 107]). At week 48, most participants had ≥50% improvement from baseline in AIMS total score (40 mg/d, 90.0%; 80 mg/d, 89.2%), Clinical Global Impression of Change-TD rating of much or very much improved (40 mg/d, 90.0%; 80 mg/d, 95.9%), and Patient Global Impression of Change rating of much or very much improved (40 mg/d, 90.0%; 80 mg/d, 89.2%). No dose effects were apparent by week 36. Week 52 results indicated some loss of effect after washout. IMPLICATIONS/CONCLUSIONS: Valbenazine was generally well tolerated, and no new safety concerns were detected. Substantial clinician- and patient-reported improvements were observed in adults with TD who received once-daily valbenazine for up to 48 weeks.

Effects of 2 Years of Exercise on Gait Impairment in People With Parkinson Disease: The PRET-PD Randomized Trial.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: This study presents a secondary analysis from the Progressive Resistance Exercise Training in Parkinson Disease (PRET-PD) trial investigating the effects of progressive resistance exercise (PRE) and a Parkinson disease (PD)-specific multimodal exercise program, modified Fitness Counts (mFC), on spatial, temporal, and stability-related gait impairments in people with PD. METHODS: Forty-eight people with PD were randomized to participate in PRE or mFC 2 times a week for 24 months; 38 completed the study. Gait velocity, stride length, cadence, and double-support time were measured under 4 walking conditions (off-/on-medication, comfortable/fast speed). Ankle strength was also measured off- and on-medication. Twenty-four healthy controls provided comparison data at one time point. RESULTS: At 24 months, there were no significant differences between exercise groups. Both groups improved fast gait velocity off-medication, cadence in all conditions, and plantarflexion strength off-/on-medication. Both groups with PD had more gait measures that approximated the healthy controls at 24 months than at baseline. Plantarflexion strength was significantly associated with gait velocity and stride length in people with PD at baseline and 24 months, but changes in strength were not associated with changes in gait. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Twenty-four months of PRE and mFC were associated with improved off-medication fast gait velocity and improved cadence in all conditions, which is important because temporal gait measures can be resistant to medications. Spatial and stability-related measures were resistant to long-term improvements, but did not decline over 24 months. Strength gains did not appear to transfer to gait.Video Abstract available for more insights from the authors (see Supplemental Digital Content 1, http://links.lww.com/JNPT/A161).

Factors Associated With Ambulatory Activity in De Novo Parkinson Disease.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Objective ambulatory activity during daily living has not been characterized for people with Parkinson disease prior to initiation of dopaminergic medication. Our goal was to characterize ambulatory activity based on average daily step count and examine determinants of step count in nonexercising people with de novo Parkinson disease. METHODS: We analyzed baseline data from a randomized controlled trial, which excluded people performing regular endurance exercise. Of 128 eligible participants (mean ± SD = 64.3 ± 8.6 years), 113 had complete accelerometer data, which were used to determine daily step count. Multiple linear regression was used to identify factors associated with average daily step count over 10 days. Candidate explanatory variable categories were (1) demographics/anthropometrics, (2) Parkinson disease characteristics, (3) motor symptom severity, (4) nonmotor and behavioral characteristics, (5) comorbidities, and (6) cardiorespiratory fitness. RESULTS: Average daily step count was 5362 ± 2890 steps per day. Five factors explained 24% of daily step count variability, with higher step count associated with higher cardiorespiratory fitness (10%), no fear/worry of falling (5%), lower motor severity examination score (4%), more recent time since Parkinson disease diagnosis (3%), and the presence of a cardiovascular condition (2%). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Daily step count in nonexercising people recruited for this intervention trial with de novo Parkinson disease approached sedentary lifestyle levels. Further study is warranted for elucidating factors explaining ambulatory activity, particularly cardiorespiratory fitness, and fear/worry of falling. Clinicians should consider the costs and benefits of exercise and activity behavior interventions immediately after diagnosis of Parkinson disease to attenuate the health consequences of low daily step count.Video Abstract available for more insights from the authors (see Video, Supplemental Digital Content 1, http://links.lww.com/JNPT/A170).

Progressive resistance exercise restores some properties of the triphasic EMG pattern and improves bradykinesia: the PRET-PD randomized clinical trial.

In Parkinson's disease (PD), the characteristic triphasic agonist and antagonist muscle activation pattern during ballistic movement is impaired: the number of agonist muscle bursts is increased, and the amplitudes of the agonist and antagonist bursts are reduced. The breakdown of the triphasic electromyographic (EMG) pattern has been hypothesized to underlie bradykinesia in PD. Progressive resistance exercise has been shown to improve clinical measures of bradykinesia, but it is not clear whether the benefits for bradykinesia are accompanied by changes in agonist and antagonist muscle activity. This study examined the spatiotemporal changes in agonist and antagonist muscle activity following 24 mo of progressive resistance exercise and the combined relationship between spatiotemporal muscle activity and strength measures and upper limb bradykinesia. We compared the effects of progressive resistance exercise training (PRET) with a nonprogressive exercise intervention, modified Fitness Counts (mFC), in patients with PD. We randomized 48 participants with mild-to-moderate PD to mFC or PRET. At the study endpoint of 24 mo, participants randomized to PRET compared with mFC had significantly faster movement velocity, accompanied by significant increases in the duration, magnitude, and magnitude normalized to duration of the 1st agonist burst and fewer number of agonist bursts before peak velocity. The antagonist muscle activity was increased relative to baseline but did not differ between groups. Spatiotemporal EMG muscle activity and muscle strength were significantly associated with upper limb bradykinesia. These findings demonstrate that progressive resistance exercise improves upper limb movement velocity and restores some aspects of the triphasic EMG pattern.

The best medicine? The influence of physical activity and inactivity on Parkinson's disease.

The incidence of Parkinson's disease (PD) is expected to increase as our population ages and will likely strain the projected capacity of our health care system. Despite being the most common movement disorder, there have been few noninvasive therapeutic advances for people with PD since the first levodopa clinical trial in 1961. The study of PD pathogenesis, combined with an appreciation for the biochemical mechanisms by which physical activity and exercise may impact physiology, has resulted in emerging hypotheses for new modifiable risk factors for PD. Physical activity and exercise as a means of preventing PD, or maintaining the functionality of people with PD, are a promising area of investigation. Conversely, physical inactivity is implicated in many disease states, some of which are also correlated with the development of PD, such as metabolic syndrome. The primary relationship between these diseases is likely rooted in heightened inflammation and oxidative stress at the cellular level. Physical activity and exercise as a means of attenuating inflammation have led to increased interest in related potential therapeutic targets for PD. Ultimately, these findings may translate into low-cost, universally available therapies for PD disease modification or prevention. © 2016 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Clinimetric testing of the comprehensive cervical dystonia rating scale.

INTRODUCTION: The aim of this study was to test the clinimetric properties of the Comprehensive Cervical Dystonia Rating Scale. This is a modular scale with modifications of the Toronto Western Spasmodic Torticollis Rating Scale (composed of three subscales assessing motor severity, disability, and pain) now referred to as the revised Toronto Western Spasmodic Torticollis Scale-2; a newly developed psychiatric screening instrument; and the Cervical Dystonia Impact Profile-58 as a quality of life measure. METHODS: Ten dystonia experts rated subjects with cervical dystonia using the comprehensive scale. Clinimetric techniques assessed each module of the scale for reliability, item correlation, and factor structure. RESULTS: There were 208 cervical dystonia patients (73% women; age, 59 ± 10 years; duration, 15 ± 12 years). Internal consistency of the motor severity subscale was acceptable (Cronbach's alpha = 0.57). Item to total correlations showed that elimination of items with low correlations (<0.20) increased alpha to 0.71. Internal consistency estimates for the subscales for disability and pain were 0.88 and 0.95, respectively. The psychiatric screening scale had a Cronbach's alpha of 0.84 and satisfactory item to total correlations. When the subscales of the Toronto Western Spasmodic Torticollis Scale-2 were combined with the psychiatric screening scale, Cronbach's alpha was 0.88, and construct validity assessment demonstrated four rational factors: motor; disability; pain; and psychiatric disorders. The Cervical Dystonia Impact Profile-58 had an alpha of 0.98 and its construction was validated through a confirmatory factor analysis. CONCLUSIONS: The modules of the Comprehensive Cervical Dystonia Rating Scale are internally consistent with a logical factor structure.

Botulinum Toxin Treatment of Cervical Dystonia.

The use of botulinum toxin for the treatment of cervical dystonia (CD) was first reported in 1985. Since then, four commercially available formulations have been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for use in CD, including three botulinum toxin A formulations and one botulinum toxin B formulation. Recent clinical trials have generally demonstrated good efficacy and tolerability. Commonly reported side effects include dysphagia, muscle weakness, and dry mouth. Secondary nonresponse may develop, but the relationship of detected antibodies to clinical responsiveness remains unclear. Further research is needed into the treatment of complex subtypes of CD and the potential use of alternate botulinum toxin serotypes or subtypes with less immunogenic profiles.

Distinct functional and macrostructural brain changes in Parkinson's disease and multiple system atrophy.

Parkinson's disease (PD) and the parkinsonian variant of multiple system atrophy (MSAp) are neurodegenerative disorders that can be difficult to differentiate clinically. This study provides the first characterization of the patterns of task-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) changes across the whole brain in MSAp. We used fMRI during a precision grip force task and also performed voxel-based morphometry (VBM) on T1 -weighted images in MSAp patients, PD patients, and healthy controls. All groups were matched on age, and the patient groups had comparable motor symptom durations and severities. There were three main findings. First, MSAp and PD had reduced fMRI activation in motor control areas, including the basal ganglia, thalamus, insula, primary sensorimotor and prefrontal cortices, and cerebellum compared with controls. Second, there were no activation differences among the disease groups in the basal ganglia, thalamus, insula, or primary sensorimotor cortices, but PD had more extensive activation deficits throughout the cerebrum compared with MSAp and controls. Third, VBM revealed reduced volume in the basal ganglia, middle and inferior cerebellar peduncles, pons, and throughout the cerebrum in MSAp compared with controls and PD, and additionally throughout the cerebellar cortex and vermis in MSAp compared with controls. Collectively, these results provide the first evidence that fMRI activation is abnormal in the basal ganglia, cerebellum, and cerebrum in MSAp, and that a key distinguishing feature between MSAp and PD is the extensive and widespread volume loss throughout the brain in MSAp.

Therapeutic advances in restless legs syndrome (RLS).

Levodopa and dopamine agonists have been the main treatment for restless legs syndrome during the past decades. Although their efficacy has been well documented over the short term, long-term dopaminergic treatment is often complicated by augmentation, loss of efficacy, and other side effects. Recent large randomized controlled trials provide new evidence for the efficacy of high-potency opioids and α2δ ligands, and several post hoc analyses, meta-analyses, algorithms, and guidelines have been published, often with a specific focus, for example, on augmentation, or on management of restless legs syndrome during pregnancy. Several new contributions to understanding the pathophysiology of restless legs syndrome have been published, but at this time, whether they will have an impact on treatment possibilities in the future cannot be estimated.

Exercise improves cognition in Parkinson's disease: The PRET-PD randomized, clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: This article reports on the findings of the effect of two structured exercise interventions on secondary cognitive outcomes that were gathered as part of the Progressive Resistance Exercise Training in Parkinson's disease (PD) randomized, controlled trial. METHODS: This study was a prospective, parallel-group, single-center trial. Fifty-one nondemented patients with mild-to-moderate PD were randomly assigned either to modified Fitness Counts (mFC) or to Progressive Resistance Exercise Training (PRET) and were followed for 24 months. Cognitive outcomes were the Digit Span, Stroop, and Brief Test of Attention (BTA). RESULTS: Eighteen patients in mFC and 20 patients in PRET completed the trial. At 12 and at 24 months, no differences between groups were observed. At 12 months, relative to baseline, mFC improved on the Digit Span (estimated change: 0.3; interquartile range: 0, 0.7; P = 0.04) and Stroop (0.3; 0, 0.6; P = 0.04), and PRET improved only on the Digit Span (0.7; 0.3, 1; P < 0.01). At 24 months, relative to baseline, mFC improved on the Digit Span (0.7; 0.3, 1.7; P < 0.01) and Stroop (0.3; 0.1, 0.5; P = 0.03), whereas PRET improved on the Digit Span (0.5; 0.2, 0.8; P < 0.01), Stroop (0.2; -0.1, 0.6; P = 0.048), and BTA (0.3; 0, 0.8; P = 0.048). No neurological or cognitive adverse events were observed. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides class IV level of evidence that 24 months of PRET or mFC may improve attention and working memory in nondemented patients with mild-to-moderate Parkinson's disease.

The relationship between obsessive-compulsive symptoms and PARKIN genotype: The CORE-PD study.

BACKGROUND: Few studies have systematically investigated the association between PARKIN genotype and psychiatric co-morbidities of Parkison's disease (PD). PARKIN-associated PD is characterized by severe nigral dopaminergic neuronal loss, a finding that may have implications for behaviors rooted in dopaminergic circuits such as obsessive-compulsive symptoms (OCS). METHODS: The Schedule of Compulsions and Obsessions Patient Inventory (SCOPI) was administered to 104 patients with early-onset PD and 257 asymptomatic first-degree relatives. Carriers of one and two PARKIN mutations were compared with noncarriers. RESULTS: Among patients, carriers scored lower than noncarriers in adjusted models (one-mutation: 13.9 point difference, P = 0.03; two-mutation: 24.1, P = 0.001), where lower scores indicate less OCS. Among asymptomatic relatives, a trend toward the opposite was seen: mutation carriers scored higher than noncarriers (one mutation, P = 0.05; two mutations, P = 0.13). CONCLUSIONS: First, a significant association was found between PARKIN mutation status and obsessive-compulsive symptom level in both PD and asymptomatic patients, suggesting that OCS might represent an early non-motor dopamine-dependent feature. Second, irrespective of disease status, heterozygotes were significantly different from noncarriers, suggesting that PARKIN heterozygosity may contribute to phenotype. © 2014 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Understanding Anxiety in Cervical Dystonia: An Imaging Study.

BACKGROUND: Anxiety may precede motor symptoms in cervical dystonia (CD) and is associated with an earlier onset of dystonia. Our understanding of anxiety in CD is inadequate. OBJECTIVE: To investigate brain networks associated with anxiety in CD. METHODS: Twenty-six subjects with idiopathic CD underwent MRI Brain without contrast. Correlational tractography was derived using Diffusion MRI connectometry. Quantitative Anisotropy (QA) was used in deterministic diffusion fiber tracking. Correlational tractography was then used to correlate QA with State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) state (STAI-S) and trait (STAI-T) subscales. RESULTS: Connectometry analysis showed direct correlation between state anxiety and QA in tracts from amygdala to thalamus/ pulvinar bilaterally, and trait anxiety and QA in tracts from amygdala to motor cortex, sensorimotor cortex and parietal association area bilaterally (FDR ≤0.05). CONCLUSION: Our efforts to map anxiety to brain networks in CD highlight the role of the amygdala in the pathophysiology of anxiety in CD.