The PSI Domain of the MET Oncogene Encodes a Functional Disulfide Isomerase Essential for the Maturation of the Receptor Precursor.

The tyrosine kinase receptor encoded by the MET oncogene has been extensively studied. Surprisingly, one extracellular domain, PSI, evolutionary conserved between plexins, semaphorins, and integrins, has no established function. The MET PSI sequence contains two CXXC motifs, usually found in protein disulfide isomerases (PDI). Using a scrambled oxidized RNAse enzymatic activity assay in vitro, we show, for the first time, that the MET extracellular domain displays disulfide isomerase activity, abolished by PSI domain antibodies. PSI domain deletion or mutations of CXXC sites to AXXA or SXXS result in a significant impairment of the cleavage of the MET 175 kDa precursor protein, abolishing the maturation of α and ß chains, of, respectively, 50 kDa and 145 kDa, disulfide-linked. The uncleaved precursor is stuck in the Golgi apparatus and, interestingly, is constitutively phosphorylated. However, no signal transduction is observed as measured by AKT and MAPK phosphorylation. Consequently, biological responses to the MET ligand-hepatocyte growth factor (HGF)-such as growth and epithelial to mesenchymal transition, are hampered. These data show that the MET PSI domain is functional and is required for the maturation, surface expression, and biological functions of the MET oncogenic protein.

The Long-Lasting Protective Effect of HGF in Cardiomyoblasts Exposed to Doxorubicin Requires a Positive Feed-Forward Loop Mediated by Erk1,2-Timp1-Stat3.

Previous studies showed that the hepatocyte growth factor (HGF)-Met receptor axis plays long-lasting cardioprotection against doxorubicin anti-cancer therapy. Here, we explored the mechanism(s) underlying the HGF protective effect. DNA damage was monitored by histone H2AX phosphorylation and apoptosis by proteolytic cleavage of caspase 3. In doxorubicin-treated H9c2 cardiomyoblasts, the long-lasting cardioprotection is mediated by activation of the Ras/Raf/Mek/Erk (extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1,2) signaling pathway and requires Stat3 (signal transducer and activator of transcription 3) activation. The HGF protection was abrogated by the Erk1,2 inhibitor, PD98059. This translated into reduced Y705 phosphorylation and impaired nuclear translocation of Stat3, showing crosstalk between Erk1,2 and Stat3 signaling. An array of 29 cytokines, known to activate Stat3, was interrogated to identify the molecule(s) linking the two pathways. The analysis showed a selective increase in expression of the tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1 (Timp1). Consistently, inhibition in cardiomyoblasts of Timp1 translation by siRNAs blunted both Stat3 activation and the cardioprotective effect of HGF. Thus, Timp1 is responsible for the generation of a feed-forward loop of Stat3 activation and helps cardiomyocytes to survive during the genotoxic stress induced by anthracyclines.

Cardiac concentric hypertrophy promoted by activated Met receptor is mitigated in vivo by inhibition of Erk1,2 signalling with Pimasertib.

Cardiac hypertrophy is a major risk factor for heart failure. Hence, its attenuation represents an important clinical goal. Erk1,2 signalling is pivotal in the cardiac response to stress, suggesting that its inhibition may be a good strategy to revert heart hypertrophy. In this work, we unveiled the events associated with cardiac hypertrophy by means of a transgenic model expressing activated Met receptor. c-Met proto-oncogene encodes for the tyrosine kinase receptor of Hepatocyte growth factor and is a strong inducer of Ras-Raf-Mek-Erk1,2 pathway. We showed that three weeks after the induction of activated Met, the heart presents a remarkable concentric hypertrophy, with no signs of congestive failure and preserved contractility. Cardiac enlargement is accompanied by upregulation of growth-regulating transcription factors, natriuretic peptides, cytoskeletal proteins, and Extracellular Matrix remodelling factors (Timp1 and Pai1). At a later stage, cardiac hypertrophic remodelling results into heart failure with preserved systolic function. Prevention trial by suppressing activated Met showed that cardiac hypertrophy is reversible, and progression to heart failure is prevented. Notably, treatment with Pimasertib, Mek1 inhibitor, attenuates cardiac hypertrophy and remodelling. Our results suggest that modulation of Erk1.2 signalling may constitute a new therapeutic approach for treating cardiac hypertrophies.

The ROR1 pseudokinase diversifies signaling outputs in MET-addicted cancer cells.

MET is a master gene controlling a genetic program driving proliferation, apoptosis protection and invasion. The ROR1 pseudokinase acts as a MET substrate. However, its contribution to MET signaling and MET-dependent biological outcomes remains to be elucidated. By structure-function analysis of ROR1 mutants, we show that ROR1 encompasses two major substrate regions: one is located in the proline-rich domain and is directly phosphorylated by MET; the other resides in the pseudokinase domain and is phosphorylated through intermediate activation of SRC. Differential phosphorylation of these two regions dictates the execution of specific responses: phosphorylation of the ROR1 proline-rich domain by MET-but not phosphorylation of the pseudokinase domain by SRC-is necessary and sufficient to control MET-driven proliferation and protection from apoptosis. Differently, both the proline-rich and the pseudokinase domains mediate cell invasion. Consistent with the role of ROR1 in specifying the functional consequences of MET-dependent signals, ROR1 silencing leads to selective attenuation of only some of the signal transduction pathways sustained by MET. These data enlighten the so far elusive function(s) of pseudokinases and identify a mechanism of biological diversification, based on substrate specificity of oncogenic kinases.

The MET Oncogene: Thirty Years of Insights into Molecular Mechanisms Driving Malignancy.

The discovery and subsequent research on the MET oncogene's role in cancer onset and progression have illuminated crucial insights into the molecular mechanisms driving malignancy. The identification of MET as the hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) receptor has paved the path for characterizing the MET tyrosine kinase activation mechanism and its downstream signaling cascade. Over the past thirty years, research has established the importance of HGF/MET signaling in normal cellular processes, such as cell dissociation, migration, proliferation, and cell survival. Notably, genetic alterations that lead to the continuous activation of MET, known as constitutive activation, have been identified as oncogenic drivers in various cancers. The genetic lesions affecting MET, such as exon skipping, gene amplification, and gene rearrangements, provide valuable targets for therapeutic intervention. Moreover, the implications of MET as a resistance mechanism to targeted therapies emphasize the need for combination treatments that include MET inhibitors. The intriguing "flare effect" phenomenon, wherein MET inhibition can lead to post-treatment increases in cancer cell proliferation, underscores the dynamic nature of cancer therapeutics. In human tumors, increased protein expression often occurs without gene amplification. Various mechanisms may cause an overexpression: transcriptional upregulation induced by other oncogenes; environmental factors (such as hypoxia or radiation); or substances produced by the reactive stroma, such as inflammatory cytokines, pro-angiogenic factors, and even HGF itself. In conclusion, the journey to understanding MET's involvement in cancer onset and progression over the past three decades has not only deepened our knowledge, but has also paved the way for innovative therapeutic strategies. Selective pharmacological inactivation of MET stands as a promising avenue for achieving cancer remission, particularly in cases where MET alterations are the primary drivers of malignancy.

MET Oncogene Enhances Pro-Migratory Functions by Counteracting NMDAR2B Cleavage.

The involvement of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR), a glutamate-gated ion channel, in promoting the invasive growth of cancer cells is an area of ongoing investigation. Our previous findings revealed a physical interaction between NMDAR and MET, the hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) receptor. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying this NMDAR/MET interaction remain unclear. In this study, we demonstrate that the NMDAR2B subunit undergoes proteolytic processing, resulting in a low-molecular-weight form of 100 kDa. Interestingly, when the NMDAR2B and MET constructs were co-transfected, the full-size high-molecular-weight NMDAR2B form of 160 kDa was predominantly observed. The protection of NMDAR2B from cleavage was dependent on the kinase activity of MET. We provide the following evidence that MET opposes the autophagic lysosomal proteolysis of NMDAR2B: (i) MET decreased the protein levels of lysosomal cathepsins; (ii) treatment with either an inhibitor of autophagosome formation or the fusion of the autophagosome and lysosome elevated the proportion of the NMDAR2B protein's uncleaved form; (iii) a specific mTOR inhibitor hindered the anti-autophagic effect of MET. Finally, we demonstrate that MET coopts NMDAR2B to augment cell migration. This implies that MET harnesses the functionality of NMDAR2B to enhance the ability of cancer cells to migrate.

Efficacy of CAR-T immunotherapy in MET overexpressing tumors not eligible for anti-MET targeted therapy.

BACKGROUND: Aberrant activation of the MET receptor in cancer is sustained by genetic alterations or, more frequently, by transcriptional upregulations. A fraction of MET-amplified or mutated tumors are sensible to MET targeting agents, but their responsiveness is typically short-lasting, as secondary resistance eventually occurs. Since in the absence of genetic alterations MET is usually not a tumor driver, MET overexpressing tumors are not/poorly responsive to MET targeted therapies. Consequently, the vast majority of tumors exhibiting MET activation still represent an unmet medical need. METHODS: Here we propose an immunotherapy strategy based on T lymphocytes expressing a Chimeric Antigen Receptor (CAR) targeting MET overexpressing tumors of different histotypes. We engineered two different MET-CAR constructs and tested MET-CAR-T cell cytotoxic activity against different MET overexpressing models, including tumor cell lines, primary cancer cells, organoids, and xenografts in immune-deficient mice. RESULTS: We proved that MET-CAR-T exerted a specific cytotoxic activity against MET expressing cells. Cell killing was proportional to the level of MET expressed on the cell surface. While CAR-T cytotoxicity was minimal versus cells carrying MET at physiological levels, essentially sparing normal cells, the activity versus MET overexpressing tumors was robust, significantly controlling tumor cell growth in vitro and in vivo. Notably, MET-CAR-T cells were also able to brake acquired resistance to MET targeting agents in MET amplified cancer cells carrying secondary mutations in downstream signal transducers. CONCLUSIONS: We set and validated at the pre-clinical level a MET-CAR immunotherapy strategy potentially beneficial for cancers not eligible for MET targeted therapy with inhibitory molecules, including those exhibiting primary or secondary resistance.

Engineering, Characterization, and Biological Evaluation of an Antibody Targeting the HGF Receptor.

The Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) and its receptor (MET) promote several physiological activities such as tissue regeneration and protection from cell injury of epithelial, endothelial, neuronal and muscle cells. The therapeutic potential of MET activation has been scrutinized in the treatment of acute tissue injury, chronic inflammation, such as renal fibrosis and multiple sclerosis (MS), cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. On the other hand, the HGF-MET signaling pathway may be caught by cancer cells and turned to work for invasion, metastasis, and drug resistance in the tumor microenvironment. Here, we engineered a recombinant antibody (RDO24) and two derived fragments, binding the extracellular domain (ECD) of the MET protein. The antibody binds with high affinity (8 nM) to MET ECD and does not cross-react with the closely related receptors RON nor with Semaphorin 4D. Deletion mapping studies and computational modeling show that RDO24 binds to the structure bent on the Plexin-Semaphorin-Integrin (PSI) domain, implicating the PSI domain in its binding to MET. The intact RDO24 antibody and the bivalent Fab2, but not the monovalent Fab induce MET auto-phosphorylation, mimicking the mechanism of action of HGF that activates the receptor by dimerization. Accordingly, the bivalent recombinant molecules induce HGF biological responses, such as cell migration and wound healing, behaving as MET agonists of therapeutic interest in regenerative medicine. In vivo administration of RDO24 in the murine model of MS, represented by experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), delays the EAE onset, mitigates the early clinical symptoms, and reduces inflammatory infiltrates. Altogether, these results suggest that engineered RDO24 antibody may be beneficial in multiple sclerosis and possibly other types of inflammatory disorders.

Molecular Engineering Strategies Tailoring the Apoptotic Response to a MET Therapeutic Antibody.

The MET oncogene encodes a tyrosine kinase receptor involved in the control of a complex network of biological responses that include protection from apoptosis and stimulation of cell growth during embryogenesis, tissue regeneration, and cancer progression. We previously developed an antagonist antibody (DN30) inducing the physical removal of the receptor from the cell surface and resulting in suppression of the biological responses to MET. In its bivalent form, the antibody displayed a residual agonist activity, due to dimerization of the lingering receptors, and partial activation of the downstream signaling cascade. The balance between the two opposing activities is variable in different biological systems and is hardly predictable. In this study, we generated and characterized two single-chain antibody fragments derived from DN30, sharing the same variable regions but including linkers different in length and composition. The two engineered molecules bind MET with high affinity but induce different biological responses. One behaves as a MET-antagonist, promoting programmed cell death in MET "addicted" cancer cells. The other acts as a hepatocyte growth factor (HGF)-mimetic, protecting normal cells from doxorubicin-induced apoptosis. Thus, by engineering the same receptor antibody, it is possible to generate molecules enhancing or inhibiting apoptosis either to kill cancer cells or to protect healthy tissues from the injuries of chemotherapy.

Activation of the MET receptor attenuates doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity in vivo and in vitro.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Doxorubicin anti-cancer therapy is associated with cardiotoxicity, resulting from DNA damage response (DDR). Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) protects cardiomyocytes from injury, but its effective use is compromised by low biodistribution. In this study, we have investigated whether the activation of the HGF receptor-encoded by the Met gene-by an agonist monoclonal antibody (mAb) could protect against doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: The mAb (5 mg·kg-1 ) was injected in vivo into C57BL/6J mice, before doxorubicin (three doses of 7 mg·kg-1 ). Cardiac functions were evaluated through MRI after treatment termination. Heart histological staining and mRNA levels of genes associated with heart failure (Acta1 and Nppa), inflammation (IL-6), and fibrosis (Ctgf, Col1a2, Timp1, and Mmp9) were assessed. MAb (100 nM) was administered in vitro to H9c2 cardiomyoblasts before addition of doxorubicin (25 µM). DDR and apoptosis markers were evaluated by quantitative western blotting, flow cytometry, and immunofluorescence. Stattic was used for pharmacological inactivation of STAT3. KEY RESULTS: In vivo, administration of the mAb alleviated doxorubicin-induced cardiac dysfunction and fibrosis. In vitro, mAb mimicked the response to HGF by (a) inhibiting histone H2AX phosphorylation at S139, (b) quenching the expression of the DNA repair enzyme PARP1, and (c) reducing the proteolytic activation of caspase 3. The MET-driven cardioprotection involved, at least in vitro, the phosphorylation of STAT3. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS: The MET agonist mAb provides a new tool for cardioprotection against anthracycline cardiotoxicity.

RON tyrosine kinase mutations in brain metastases from lung cancer.

RON mutations might identify actionable targets in highly aggressive lung tumours http://ow.ly/RTUp30hSBX6.

Increased Lactate Secretion by Cancer Cells Sustains Non-cell-autonomous Adaptive Resistance to MET and EGFR Targeted Therapies.

The microenvironment influences cancer drug response and sustains resistance to therapies targeting receptor-tyrosine kinases. However, if and how the tumor microenvironment can be altered during treatment, contributing to resistance onset, is not known. We show that, under prolonged treatment with tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs), EGFR- or MET-addicted cancer cells displayed a metabolic shift toward increased glycolysis and lactate production. We identified secreted lactate as the key molecule instructing cancer-associated fibroblasts to produce hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) in a nuclear factor κB-dependent manner. Increased HGF, activating MET-dependent signaling in cancer cells, sustained resistance to TKIs. Functional or pharmacological targeting of molecules involved in the lactate axis abrogated in vivo resistance, demonstrating the crucial role of this metabolite in the adaptive process. This adaptive resistance mechanism was observed in lung cancer patients progressed on EGFR TKIs, demonstrating the clinical relevance of our findings and opening novel scenarios in the challenge to drug resistance.

Plexin-B1 plays a redundant role during mouse development and in tumour angiogenesis.

BACKGROUND: Plexins are a large family of transmembrane receptors for the Semaphorins, known for their role in the assembly of neural circuitry. More recently, Plexins have been implicated in diverse biological functions, including vascular growth, epithelial tissue morphogenesis and tumour development. In particular, PlexinB1, the receptor for Sema4D, has been suggested to play a role in neural development and in tumour angiogenesis, based on in vitro studies. However, the tissue distribution of PlexinB1 has not been extensively studied and the functional relevance of this receptor in vivo still awaits experimental testing. In order to shed light on PlexinB1 function in vivo, we therefore undertook the genomic targeting of the mouse gene to obtain loss of function mutants. RESULTS: This study shows that PlexinB1 receptor and its putative ligand, Sema4D, have a selective distribution in nervous and epithelial tissues during development and in the adult. PlexinB1 and Sema4D show largely complementary cell distribution in tissues, consistent with the idea that PlexinB1 acts as the receptor for Sema4D in vivo. Interestingly, PlexinB1 is also expressed in certain tissues in the absence of Sema4D, suggesting Sema4D independent activities. High expression of PlexinB1 was found in lung, kidney, liver and cerebellum. Mutant mice lacking expression of semaphorin receptor PlexinB1 are viable and fertile. Although the axon collapsing activity of Sema4D is impaired in PlexinB1 deficient neurons, we could not detect major defects in development, or in adult histology and basic functional parameters of tissues expressing PlexinB1. Moreover, in the absence of PlexinB1 the angiogenic response induced by orthotopically implanted tumours was not affected, suggesting that the expression of this semaphorin receptor in endothelial cells is redundant. CONCLUSION: Our expression analysis suggests a multifaceted role of PlexinB1 during mouse development and tissue homeostasis in the adult. Nonetheless, the genetic deletion of PlexinB1 does not result in major developmental defects or clear functional abnormalities. We infer that PlexinB1 plays a redundant role in mouse development and it is not strictly required for tumour induced angiogenesis.

TGFalpha expression impairs Trastuzumab-induced HER2 downregulation.

The HER2 gene encodes a tyrosine kinase receptor overexpressed in 25-30% of human breast cancers. Clinical trials have shown the efficacy of the anti-HER2 monoclonal antibody Trastuzumab in metastatic breast cancer patients. Nevertheless, 70% of patients are unresponsive from start of treatment and nearly all become unresponsive during treatment. Possible mechanisms for these failures could depend on impairment of the machinery responsible for receptor downregulation. To test this hypothesis, we analysed the genomic sequences encoding regions known to be critical for HER2 downregulation, of both HER2 and of the ubiquitin ligase Cbl. We investigated 63 breast cancers, and found no mutations in these regions. We thus considered alternative mechanisms -- such as TGFalpha production -- possibly interfering with HER2 downregulation. In selected cases, by comparing breast cancer neoplastic tissue before and after Trastuzumab treatment, we found induction of TGFalpha expression. Moreover, by in vitro expression of exogenous TGFalpha in breast cancer cells, we observed a dramatic reduction in Trastuzumab-induced HER2 endocytosis, downregulation and cell growth inhibition. Our results suggest that unresponsiveness to Trastuzumab may not be due to intrinsic defects in the machinery responsible for HER2 downregulation, but can be associated with a TGFalpha-related mechanism of escape to HER2 downregulation.

Interplay between scatter factor receptors and B plexins controls invasive growth.

Met and Ron tyrosine kinases are members of the Scatter Factor Receptor family. Met is the receptor for hepatocyte growth factor while Ron is that for macrophage stimulating protein. On ligand stimulation, activation of these receptors induces 'invasive growth', a complex biological response involved in tissue morphogenesis and, when deregulated, in tumor progression and metastasis. Scatter Factor Receptors share structural homology with Plexins, transmembrane receptors for Semaphorins, a family of ligands originally identified as axon guidance molecules. A physical and functional association between Met and Plexin B1, the prototype of class B Plexin subfamily, has been previously demonstrated. Here, we show that both Met and Ron receptors can interact with each of the three members of class B Plexins, even in the absence of their ligands and that Plexin B1 ligand, Sema 4D, can induce activation of Met and Ron receptors, promoting an invasive response. Furthermore, in some human neoplastic cell lines Plexin B1 is overexpressed, constitutively tyrosine phosphorylated, and associated with Scatter Factor Receptors. These data extend the crosstalk previously described between Met and Plexin B1 to the entire families of Scatter Factor Receptors and class B Plexins and show that interaction with multiple upstream activators can finely tune the invasive growth process both in physiological conditions and in tumor growth and metastatization.

MET and KRAS gene amplification mediates acquired resistance to MET tyrosine kinase inhibitors.

The establishment of the role of MET in human cancer has led to the development of small-molecule inhibitors, many of which are currently in clinical trials. Thus far, nothing is known about their therapeutic efficacy and the possible emergence of resistance to treatment, a problem that has been often observed with other receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) inhibitors. To predict mechanisms of acquired resistance, we generated resistant cells by treating MET-addicted cells with increasing concentrations of the MET small-molecule inhibitors PHA-665752 or JNJ38877605. Resistant cells displayed MET gene amplification, leading to increased expression and constitutive phosphorylation of MET, followed by subsequent amplification and overexpression of wild-type (wt) KRAS. Cells harboring KRAS amplification progressively lost their MET dependence and acquired KRAS dependence. Our results suggest that MET and KRAS amplification is a general mechanism of resistance to specific MET inhibitors given that similar results were observed with two small inhibitors and in different cell lines of different histotypes. To our knowledge, this is the first report showing that overexpression of wt KRAS can overcome the inhibitory effect of a RTK inhibitor. In view of the fact that cellular models of resistance to inhibitors targeting other tyrosine kinases have predicted and corroborated clinical findings, our results provide insights into strategies for preventing and/or overcoming drug resistance.

Tumor angiogenesis and progression are enhanced by Sema4D produced by tumor-associated macrophages.

Increased evidence suggests that cancer-associated inflammation supports tumor growth and progression. We have previously shown that semaphorin 4D (Sema4D), a ligand produced by different cell types, is a proangiogenic molecule that acts by binding to its receptor, plexin B1, expressed on endothelial cells (Conrotto, P., D. Valdembri, S. Corso, G. Serini, L. Tamagnone, P.M. Comoglio, F. Bussolino, and S. Giordano. 2005. Blood. 105:4321-4329). The present work highlights the role of Sema4D produced by the tumor microenvironment on neoplastic angiogenesis. We show that in an environment lacking Sema4D, the ability of cancer cells to generate tumor masses and metastases is severely impaired. This condition can be explained by a defective vascularization inside the tumor. We demonstrate that tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are the main cells producing Sema4D within the tumor stroma and that their ability to produce Sema4D is critical for tumor angiogenesis and vessel maturation. This study helps to explain the protumoral role of inflammatory cells of the tumor stroma and leads to the identification of an angiogenic molecule that might be a novel therapeutic target.

Genetic targeting of the kinase activity of the Met receptor in cancer cells.

The development of kinase inhibitors is revolutionizing cancer treatment. Assessing the oncogenic potential of individual kinase activities and ensuring that a drug of interest acts by direct inhibition of its putative target kinase are clear priorities. We developed a genetic strategy to selectively inactivate the catalytic activity of kinases. This approach generates isogenic cells in which a given kinase gene is expressed but is devoid of enzymatic activity. As a model to test this approach, we chose the MET receptor, which is involved in multiple cancers and is the focus of several therapeutic efforts. The exon encoding the ATP-binding site of MET was deleted from the genome of colorectal, bladder, and endometrial cancer cells. The derivative isogenic cells expressed a kinase-inactive Met (MET-KD) and were completely unresponsive to its ligand hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), indicating the exclusivity of this ligand-receptor axis. The in vivo tumorigenic potential of MET-KD cells was reduced but could be partially restored by HGF, suggesting that concomitant targeting of the receptor and its ligand should be therapeutically exploited. A reportedly selective Met-kinase inhibitor (SU-11274) markedly affected the growth of MET-KD cancer cells, indicating this compound exerts its effects not only through the intended target. The genetic strategy presented here is not limited to kinase genes but could be broadly applicable to any drug/protein combination in which the target enzymatic domain is known.

Sema4D induces angiogenesis through Met recruitment by Plexin B1.

Semaphorins, a large family of membrane-bound and secreted proteins, signal through their transmembrane receptors, the plexins. Semaphorins and plexins share structural homologies with scatter factor receptors, a family of tyrosine kinase receptors for which Met is the prototype. Semaphorins have been studied primarily in the developing nervous system, where they act as repelling cues in axon guidance. However, they are widely expressed in several tissues, and their role in epithelial morphogenesis has been recently established. Not much is known about their role in angiogenesis, a key step during embryonic development and adulthood. Here we demonstrate that a semaphorin, Sema4D, is angiogenic in vitro and in vivo and that this effect is mediated by its high-affinity receptor, Plexin B1. Moreover, we prove that biologic effects elicited by Plexin B1 require coupling and activation of the Met tyrosine kinase. In sum, we identify a proangiogenic semaphorin and provide insight about the signaling machinery exploited by Plexin B1 to control angiogenesis.

Cell motility is controlled by SF2/ASF through alternative splicing of the Ron protooncogene.

Ron, the tyrosine kinase receptor for the Macrophage-stimulating protein, is involved in cell dissociation, motility, and matrix invasion. DeltaRon, a constitutively active isoform that confers increased motility to expressing cells, is generated through the skipping of exon 11. We show that abnormal accumulation of DeltaRon mRNA occurs in breast and colon tumors. Skipping of exon 11 is controlled by a silencer and an enhancer of splicing located in the constitutive exon 12. The strength of the enhancer parallels the relative abundance of DeltaRon mRNA and depends on a sequence directly bound by splicing factor SF2/ASF. Overexpression and RNAi experiments demonstrate that SF2/ASF, by controlling the production of DeltaRon, activates epithelial to mesenchymal transition leading to cell locomotion. The effect of SF2/ASF overexpression is reverted by specific knockdown of DeltaRon mRNA. This demonstrates a direct link between SF2/ASF-regulated splicing and cell motility, an activity important for embryogenesis, tissue formation, and tumor metastasis.