Correction: Social Media Use and Its Concurrent and Subsequent Relation to a Biological Marker of Inflammation: Short-Term Longitudinal Study.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.2196/46309.].

Can inflammation predict social media use? Linking a biological marker of systemic inflammation with social media use among college students and middle-aged adults.

Drawing on recent evidence that inflammation may promote social affiliative motivation, the present research proposes a novel perspective that inflammation may be associated with more social media use. In a cross-sectional analysis of a nationally representative sample, Study 1 (N = 863) found a positive association between C-reactive protein (CRP), a biomarker of systemic inflammation, and the amount of social media use by middle-aged adults. Study 2 (N = 228) showed that among college students CRP was prospectively associated with more social media use 6 weeks later. Providing stronger evidence of the directionality of this effect, Study 3 (N = 171) showed that in college students CRP predicted increased social media use in the subsequent week even after controlling for current week's use. Additionally, in exploratory analyses of CRP and different types of social media use in the same week, CRP was only associated with using social media for social interaction and not for other purposes (e.g., entertainment). The present research sheds light on the social effects of inflammation and highlights potential benefits of using social media as a context for studying the impact of inflammation on social motivation and behavior.

Social Media Use and Its Concurrent and Subsequent Relation to a Biological Marker of Inflammation: Short-Term Longitudinal Study.

BACKGROUND: Although many studies have examined the impact of social media use (SMU) on mental health, very few studies have examined the association of SMU with health-relevant biomarkers. OBJECTIVE: Addressing this gap, we conducted a short-term longitudinal study examining the link between SMU and C-reactive protein (CRP), a biological marker of systemic inflammation predictive of major depression, chronic diseases, and mortality. METHODS: We measured college students' weekly amount of SMU for 5 consecutive weeks objectively via the Screen Time app and collected blood samples at baseline and 5 weeks later. RESULTS: In separate cross-sectional analyses conducted at phase 1 (baseline) and at phase 2 (5 weeks after baseline), objective SMU had a positive, concurrent association with CRP at both time points. Critically, in a longitudinal analysis, more SMU between phase 1 and phase 2 predicted increased CRP between these time points, suggesting that increased SMU led to heightened inflammation during that period. CONCLUSIONS: Although more research is needed to understand why SMU led to higher inflammation, the association between objective SMU and a marker of a biological process critical to physical health presents an intriguing opportunity for future research on social media effects.

Perceived social support-giving moderates the association between social relationships and interleukin-6 levels in blood.

Although positive social relationships are assumed to relate to lower levels of chronic systemic inflammation, the empirical evidence on this association is mixed. This study examines whether perceived social support-giving (i.e., the belief that one can be available to give social support to others, henceforward referred to as perceived support-giving) moderates associations between social relationships and inflammation using data from the longitudinal follow-up of the National Survey of Midlife Development in the U.S. (MIDUS II). Middle-aged adults (N = 1054) completed self-report questionnaires on social integration, perceived support-availability from others, positive relations with others, perceived support-giving, socio-demographic information, and health-related information and provided blood samples for measurement of interleukin-6 (IL-6) as a marker of systemic inflammation. The results showed that perceived support-giving moderated the associations between IL-6 and indicators of positive social relationships, including social integration, perceived support-availability, and positive relations with others. Indicators of positive social relationships were associated with lower IL-6 among individuals higher, but not lower, in perceived support-giving. The moderating effects of perceived support-giving held after adjusting for socio-demographic and health-related covariates. Therefore, positive social relationships are associated with lower IL-6 only for individuals who believe they can give more support in those relationships. In addition, preliminary evidence indicated that the moderating effects of perceived support-giving might be further qualified by gender, being significant only in women.

Social Motivation: Costs and Benefits of Selfishness and Otherishness.

We examine recent evidence on the consequences of selfishness and otherishness for psychological well-being, physical health, and relationships. In the first sections, we consider recent evidence regarding the costs and benefits of giving time, money, and support to others and the costs and benefits of taking or receiving those things from others. Then, because the behaviors of giving and taking can be motivated either by selfish or otherish concerns, we next consider the costs and benefits of the motivation underlying giving and taking. We also examine why and for whom selfishness and otherishness have consequences for psychological well-being, physical health, and relationships. We focus on mechanisms identified in research, including intrapsychic mechanisms such as positive and negative affect, self-esteem and self-efficacy, a sense of meaning and purpose in life, and a sense of connectedness to or isolation from others, as well as interpersonal processes such as reciprocation of support and responsiveness.

Compassionate and self-image goals as interpersonal maintenance factors in clinical depression and anxiety.

OBJECTIVE: Interpersonal models of depression and anxiety have not examined the role of interpersonal goals in shaping relationships and symptoms. Striving to promote/protect desired self-images (self-image goals) may undermine relationships and increase symptoms, whereas striving to support others (compassionate goals) may be protective, but clinical relevance is unknown. METHOD: We tested effects of compassionate versus self-image goals on interpersonal functioning and symptoms in clinically depressed and/or anxious participants (N = 47) during 10 days of experience sampling, over a 6-week follow-up, and in a dyadic relationship. RESULTS: Participants reported higher conflict and symptoms on days that they most pursued self-image goals, but noted higher perceived support and lower symptoms when pursuing compassionate goals. Goals prospectively predicted symptom changes 6 weeks later. Lastly, informant-rated interpersonal goals predicted relationship satisfaction of both patients and significant others. CONCLUSION: Results suggest the relevance of self-image and compassionate goals for the interpersonal maintenance of depression and anxiety.

Mediators of compassionate goal intervention effects on human neuroendocrine responses to the Trier Social Stress Test.

OBJECTIVES: The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is thought to mediate the effects of stress on illness. Research has identified a limited number of psychological variables that modulate human HPA responses to stressors (e.g. perceived control and social support). Prosocial goals can reduce subjective stress, but have not been carefully examined in experimental settings where pathways of impact on biological stress markers may be traced. Recent work demonstrated that coaching individuals to strive to help others reduced HPA responses to the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) relative to other cognitive interventions. However, identification of mediational pathways, which were not examined in the original study, is necessary to determine whether the HPA buffering effects were due to helping motivations (compassionate goals; CGs) rather than via previously identified variables such as control or support. METHODS: In this new analysis, we combined the original cortisol data with novel observer ratings of interpersonal behavior and psychological variables during the stress task, and conducted new, theory-driven analyses to determine psychological mediators for the intervention's effect on cortisol responses (N = 54; 21 females, 33 males; 486 cortisol samples). RESULTS: Control, support, and task ego-threat failed to account for the effects of the intervention. As hypothesized, self and observer-rated CGs, as well as observer-rated perceptions of participants' interpersonal behavior as morally desirable (but not as dominant or affiliative) were significant mediators of neuroendocrine responses. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that stress-reduction interventions based on prosocial behavior should target particular motivational and interpersonal features.

How Relationships Foster Growth: Compassionate Goals Predict Growth-Seeking Through Perceived Available Support Independent of Relationship Security.

Growth-seeking refers to a general tendency to pursue growth when facing challenges. The current studies examined whether and how benevolent intentions to support others and not harm them (i.e., compassionate goals in relationships) predict growth-seeking and whether this association is independent of relationship security, which may also predict growth-seeking. Two cross-sectional studies (Studies 1a and 1b, N = 1,032) and two longitudinal studies (Study 2: 3-wave weekly survey, N = 404; Study 3: 12-wave weekly survey, N = 230) showed that compassionate goals correlate with growth-seeking and predict increased growth-seeking over time through perceived available support. The results hold after controlling for participants' (Studies 1-3) and their partners' (Study 3) relationship security, which suggests that compassionate goals may foster growth-seeking through perceived available support independent of relationship security. In addition, Study 3 suggests an intrapersonal process (i.e., projected perceptions) underlying the link between compassionate goals and perceived available support.

Compassionate goals, responsiveness, and well-being.

Compassionate goals-intentions to be supportive and constructive and not harm relationship partners-predict responsiveness and well-being. However, not much is known about whether the effects of compassionate goals depend on attachment security, trust, or self-esteem. This article reviews recent studies examining this research question. These studies indicate that compassionate goals predict relationship processes (e.g., responsiveness, constructive approaches to relationship problems, self-disclosure) and well-being (e.g., growth-seeking) regardless of attachment security, trust, and self-esteem. Furthermore, compassionate goals also predict increased attachment security, trust, and self-esteem over time. These findings suggest that people with compassionate goals can cultivate responsive relationships and thrive through relationships even when they have insecurities related to low attachment security, low trust, or low self-esteem.

Understanding the role of depressive symptoms in academic outcomes: A longitudinal study of college roommates.

Rising rates of depression among adolescents raise many questions about the role of depressive symptoms in academic outcomes for college students and their roommates. In the current longitudinal study, we follow previously unacquainted roommate dyads over their first year in college (N = 245 dyads). We examine the role of depressive symptoms of incoming students and their roommates on their GPAs and class withdrawals (provided by university registrars) at the end of the Fall and Spring semesters. We test contagion between the roommates on both academic outcomes and depressive symptoms over time. Finally, we examine the moderating role of relationship closeness. Whereas students' own initial levels of depressive symptoms predicted their own lower GPA and more course withdrawals, they did not directly predict the academic outcomes of their roommates. For roommates who form close relationships, there was evidence of contagion of both GPAs and depressive symptoms at the end of Fall and Spring semesters. Finally, a longitudinal path model showed that as depressive symptoms spread from the student to their roommate, the roommate's GPA decreased. The current work sheds light on a common college experience with implications for the role of interventions to increase the academic and mental health of college students.

Investigating the link between liking versus wanting self-esteem and depression in a nationally representative sample of American adults.

The self-esteem movement has been around since the 1970s, and may have influenced how much value people place on self-esteem. We predicted a negative relationship between age and the amount of value placed on self-esteem boosts. We also investigated the correlates of liking versus wanting self-esteem boosts (and other pleasant rewards) on depression. A nationally representative sample of American adults (N = 867) indicated how much they liked and wanted several pleasant rewards (i.e., sex, food, alcohol, money, friendship, self-esteem boost). They also completed a standardized measure of depressive symptoms. As expected, there was a negative relationship between age and valuing self-esteem boosts, sex, and alcohol. People with depressive symptoms wanted self-esteem boosts, even though they did not like them very much. Similar effects were obtained for depressive symptoms and alcohol and friendship. This is the first research to show that self-esteem boosts are more valued among a nationally representative sample of younger American adults. It also is the first research to explore the association between depression and the motivation to boost self-esteem. People with depressive symptoms want self-esteem, and may pursue it, but this pursuit may feel unrewarding because they do not derive pleasure from it.

Social Media Use and Its Link to Physical Health Indicators.

Social media use has become an integral part of many young adults' daily lives. Although much research has examined how social media use relates to psychological well-being, little is known about how it relates to physical health. To address this knowledge gap, the present research investigated how the amount of social media people use relates to various indices of physical health. Young adults provided a blood sample that was analyzed for C-reactive protein (CRP), a marker of chronic inflammation. They also completed self-report measures of social media use, somatic symptoms, illness-related physician or health center visits, and whether they sought medical care for infection-related illnesses in the last 3 months. Social media use was positively correlated with higher levels of CRP, more somatic symptoms, and more visits to the doctor or health centers for an illness. Although directionally consistent, the correlation with likelihood of seeking medical care for infection-related illnesses was nonsignificant (p = 0.061). All of these results held after controlling for factors such as sociodemographic information and depressive symptoms. Given the prevalence of social media use in daily life, these findings underscore the need for more research examining how social media use relates to physical health.

Relationship contingency and sexual motivation in women: implications for sexual satisfaction.

Deriving self-worth from romantic relationships (relationship contingency) may have implications for women's sexual motives in relationships. Because relationship contingency enhances motivation to sustain relationships to maintain positive self-worth, relationship contingent women may engage in sex to maintain and enhance their relationships (relational sex motives). Using structural equation modeling on Internet survey data from a convenience sample of 462 women in heterosexual and lesbian relationships, we found that greater relationship contingency predicted greater relational sex motives, which simultaneously predicted both sexual satisfaction and dissatisfaction via two distinct motivational states. Having sex to improve intimacy with one's partner was associated with greater sexual satisfaction and autonomy, while having sex to earn partner's approval was associated with sexual dissatisfaction and inhibition. While some differences exist between lesbian and heterosexual relationships, relationship contingency had sexual costs and benefits, regardless of relationship type.

Presidential address: self-image and compassionate goals and construction of the social self: implications for social and personality psychology.

Interpersonal dynamics of self-esteem are explored. The author proposes that the desire to be seen as having positive qualities and avoid being seen as having dreaded qualities paradoxically leads to lowered self-esteem and lowered regard from others through its adverse effects on interpersonal relationships. The author also argues that the human capacity to transcend concerns with the images others hold of oneself, through caring about the well-being of other people, paradoxically leads to higher self-esteem and regard from others through its salutary effects on relationships. Data from two recent studies demonstrate these paradoxical effects and prompt questions about the nature of persons and situations, research methods, and the union between personality and social psychology. Accordingly, the author reflects more broadly on how people create their social situations, which in turn create the self, and what that means about the methods scholars use to understand social behavior.

Sweets, sex, or self-esteem? Comparing the value of self-esteem boosts with other pleasant rewards.

Many people ascribe great value to self-esteem, but how much value? Do people value self-esteem more than other pleasant activities, such as eating sweets and having sex? Two studies of college students (Study 1: N=130; Study 2: N=152) showed that people valued boosts to their self-esteem more than they valued eating a favorite food and engaging in a favorite sexual activity. Study 2 also showed that people valued self-esteem more than they valued drinking alcohol, receiving a paycheck, and seeing a best friend. Both studies found that people who highly valued self-esteem engaged in laboratory tasks to boost their self-esteem. Finally, personality variables interacted with these value ratings. Entitled people thought they were more deserving of all pleasant rewards, even though they did not like them all that much (both studies), and people who highly value self-esteem pursued potentially maladaptive self-image goals, presumably to elevate their self-esteem (Study 2).

Understanding Whites' perceptions of multicultural policies: A (non)zero-sum framework?

Non-Hispanic Whites can perceive multicultural diversity policies as excluding their group and threatening their identity. However, increasing demographic diversity and the proliferation of organizational diversity efforts may have led Whites to view multicultural policies in more nonzero-sum ways. Reanalyzing nationally representative data, Study 1 showed that over the past 10 years, White Americans have become more supportive of diversity policies that explicitly recognize group memberships and have become less likely to view these policies as harmful to their group. Five experiments further showed that a multicultural (vs. colorblind) policy did not increase Whites' experiences of social identity threat (Studies 2-6) or their perceived exclusion from a company's diversity efforts (Studies 4-6). While a multicultural policy increased how much Whites believed an organization generally valued diversity and specifically valued the group differences of racial minorities, it did not decrease how much Whites believed their own group differences were valued (Studies 4-5). A multicultural policy only threatened Whites when group differences were narrowly defined to exclude their group (Study 6). An internal meta-analysis (N = 1,998) supported these conclusions and found they did not depend on need to belong, ethnic identification, political ideology, or the imagined presence of an outgroup coworker. These findings indicate that non-Hispanic White Americans generally conceptualize multicultural policies in nonzero-sum terms and suggest that (non)zero-sum beliefs may be key to understanding when diversity efforts are likely to elicit backlash from majority group members. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Childhood Emotional Maltreatment and Romantic Relationships: The Role of Compassionate Goals.

Past research indicates that childhood emotional maltreatment (CEM) undermines the quality of adult romantic relationships by fostering negative characteristics in survivors. Two longitudinal studies investigated the hypothesis that decreased compassionate goals toward partners over time explain the association between CEM and declining relationship quality. In Study 1, CEM predicted decreased compassionate goals over time, which in turn predicted decreased relationship quality in individuals in romantic relationships. Study 2 replicated this effect in romantically involved couples and showed that partners' high compassionate goals attenuated the decline in compassionate goals associated with reported CEM. These results point to the importance of examining how CEM may affect positive relationship processes and the protective roles of partners' compassionate goals.

Compassionate goals predict COVID-19 health behaviors during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.

We predicted that people with compassionate goals to support others and not harm them practiced more COVID-19 health behaviors during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic to protect both themselves and others from infection. Three studies (N = 1,143 American adults) supported these predictions and ruled out several alternative explanations. Compassionate goals unrelated to the health context predicted COVID-19 health behaviors better than the general motivation to be healthy (Studies 2 and 3). In contrast, general health motivation predicted general health behaviors better than did compassionate goals. Compassionate goals and political ideology each explained unique variance in COVID-19 health behaviors (Studies 1-3). Compassionate goals predict unique variance in COVID-19 health behaviors beyond empathic concern, communal orientation, and relational self-construal (Study 3), supporting the unique contribution of compassionate goals to understanding health behaviors. Our results suggest that ecosystem motivation is an important predictor of health behaviors, particularly in the context of a highly contagious disease.

Prosocial Orientations: Distinguishing Compassionate Goals From Other Constructs.

The compassionate goals scale was developed to assess the intentions underlying prosocial behaviors. Over the past 10 years, it has been shown to predict prosociality. However, research has not yet examined how compassionate goals relate to other measures of prosocial orientations or demonstrated that compassionate goals predict unique variance beyond them. Three studies addressed this shortcoming in the existing literature. Across studies, participants completed measures of compassionate goals, compassionate love, communal orientation, communion, unmitigated communion, and empathic concern. The participants also reported giving to strangers (study 1) and giving to close others (study 2). Study 3 was dyadic in nature-the participants reported their reasons for giving to friends and gratitude, and friends reported their gratitude toward the participants. Despite strong correlations between the compassionate goals scale and other prosocial orientation measures, compassionate goals items are empirically distinct from items assessing other prosocial orientations. The compassionate goals measure accounts for unique variance in giving, reasons for giving, and gratitude. Path analyses support a dyadic process-that compassionate goals predict more other-focused reasons for giving, which then predict friends' gratitude toward the participants. While the compassionate goals measure does overlap with other well-established and commonly used measures of prosocial orientation measures, it accounts for unique variance in giving-related outcomes, suggesting that intentions are an important aspect of prosocial orientations.