Genus-wide analysis of Trichoderma antagonism toward Pythium and Globisporangium plant pathogens and the contribution of cellulases to the antagonism.

Parasitism is an important lifestyle in the Trichoderma genus but has not been studied in a genus-wide way toward Pythium and Globisporangium hosts. Our approach screened a genus-wide set of 30 Trichoderma species in dual culture assays with two soil-borne Pythium and three Globisporangium plant-parasitic species and used exo-proteomic analyses, with the aim to correlate Trichoderma antagonism with potential strategies for attacking Pythium and Globisporangium. The Trichoderma spp. showed a wide range of antagonism from strong to weak, but the same Trichoderma strain showed similar levels toward all the Pythium and Globisporangium species. The Trichoderma enzymes from strong (Trichoderma asperellum, Trichoderma atroviride, and Trichoderma virens), moderate (Trichoderma cf. guizhouense and Trichoderma reesei), and weak (Trichoderma parepimyces) antagonists were induced by the autoclaved mycelia of one of the screened Pythium species, Pythium myriotylum. The variable proportions of putative cellulases, proteases, and redox enzymes suggested diverse as well as shared strategies amongst the antagonists. There was a partial positive correlation between antagonism from microscopy and the cellulase activity induced by autoclaved P. myriotylum mycelia in different Trichoderma species. The deletion of the cellulase transcriptional activator XYR1 in T. reesei led to lower antagonism toward Pythium and Globisporangium. The antagonism of Pythium and Globisporangium appears to be a generic property of Trichoderma as most of the Trichoderma species were at least moderately antagonistic. While a role for cellulases in the antagonism was uncovered, cellulases did not appear to make a major contribution to T. reesei antagonism, and other factors are also likely contributing.IMPORTANCETrichoderma is an important genus widely distributed in nature with broad ecological impacts and applications in the biocontrol of plant diseases. The Pythium and Globisporangium genera of fungus-like water molds include many important soil-borne plant pathogens that cause various diseases. Most of the Trichoderma species showed at least a moderate ability to compete with or antagonize the Pythium and Globisporangium hosts, and microscopy showed examples of parasitism (a slow type of killing) and predation (a fast type of killing). Hydrolytic enzymes such as cellulases and proteases produced by Trichoderma likely contribute to the antagonism. A mutant deficient in cellulase activity had reduced antagonism. Interestingly, Pythium and Globisporangium species contain cellulose in their cell walls (unlike true fungi such as Trichoderma), and the cellulolytic ability of Trichoderma appears beneficial for antagonism of water molds.

Identification and pathogenicity of Fusarium spp. associated with tea wilt in Zhejiang Province, China.

BACKGROUND: Tea is one of the most widely consumed beverages in the world, with significant economic and cultural value. However, tea production faces many challenges due to various biotic and abiotic stresses, among which fungal diseases are particularly devastating. RESULTS: To understand the identity and pathogenicity of isolates recovered from tea plants with symptoms of wilt, phylogenetic analyses and pathogenicity assays were conducted. Isolates were characterized to the species level by sequencing the ITS, tef-1α, tub2 and rpb2 sequences and morphology. Four Fusarium species were identified: Fusarium fujikuroi, Fusarium solani, Fusarium oxysporum, and Fusarium concentricum. The pathogenicity of the Fusarium isolates was evaluated on 1-year-old tea plants, whereby F. fujikuroi OS3 and OS4 strains were found to be the most virulent on tea. CONCLUSIONS: To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of tea rot caused by F. fujikuroi in the world. This provides the foundation for the identification and control of wilt disease in tea plants.

Observation of cavitation dynamics in viscous deep eutectic solvents during power ultrasound sonication.

Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) are a class of ionic liquid with emerging applications in ionometallurgy. The characteristic high viscosity of DESs, however, limit mass transport and result in slow dissolution kinetics. Through targeted application of high-power ultrasound, ionometallurgical processing time can be significantly accelerated. This acceleration is primarily mediated by the cavitation generated in the liquid surrounding the ultrasound source. In this work, we characterise the development of cavitation structure in three DESs of increasing viscosity, and water, via high-speed imaging and parallel acoustic detection. The intensity of the cavitation is characterised in each liquid as a function of input power of a commercially available ultrasonic horn across more than twenty input powers, by monitoring the bubble collapse shockwaves generated by intense, inertially collapsing bubbles. Through analysis of the acoustic emissions and bubble structure dynamics in each liquid, optimal driving powers are identified where cavitation is most effective. In each of the DESs, driving the ultrasonic horn at lower input powers (25%) was associated with greater cavitation performance than at double the driving power (50%).

A Pythium myriotylum Small Cysteine-Rich Protein Triggers Immune Responses in Diverse Plant Hosts.

The oomycete Pythium myriotylum is a necrotrophic pathogen that infects many crop species worldwide, including ginger, soybean, tomato, and tobacco. Here, we identified a P. myriotylum small cysteine-rich protein, PmSCR1, that induces cell death in Nicotiana benthamiana by screening small, secreted proteins that were induced during infection of ginger and did not have a predicted function at the time of selection. Orthologs of PmSCR1 were found in other Pythium species, but these did not have cell death-inducing activity in N. benthamiana. PmSCR1 encodes a protein containing an auxiliary activity 17 family domain and triggers multiple immune responses in host plants. The elicitor function of PmSCR1 appears to be independent of enzymatic activity, because the heat inactivation of PmSCR1 protein did not affect PmSCR1-induced cell death or other defense responses. The elicitor function of PmSCR1 was also independent of BAK1 and SOBIR1. Furthermore, a small region of the protein, PmSCR186-211, is sufficient for inducing cell death. A pretreatment using the full-length PmSCR1 protein promoted the resistance of soybean and N. benthamiana to Phytophthora sojae and Phytophthora capsici infection, respectively. These results reveal that PmSCR1 is a novel elicitor from P. myriotylum, which exhibits plant immunity-inducing activity in multiple host plants. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2023 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.

Volatile Organic Compounds from Pythium oligandrum Play a Role in Its Parasitism on Plant-Pathogenic Pythium myriotylum.

The oomycete Pythium oligandrum is a soil-inhabiting parasite and predator of both fungi and oomycetes, and uses hydrolytic enzymes extensively to penetrate and hydrolyze its host or prey. Other mechanisms have been studied less, and we investigated the contribution of P. oligandrum-produced volatile organic compounds (VOCs) to parasitism. The growth-inhibiting activity of P. oligandrum VOCs was tested on Pythium myriotylum-a host or prey of P. oligandrum-coupled with electron microscopy, and biochemical and transcriptomic analyses. The P. oligandrum-produced VOCs reduced P. myriotylum growth by 80% and zoospore levels by 60%. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) identified 23 VOCs, and methyl heptenone, d-limonene, 2-undecanone, and 1-octanal were potent inhibitors of P. myriotylum growth and led to increased production of reactive oxygen species at a concentration that did not inhibit P. oligandrum growth. Exposure to the P. oligandrum VOCs led to shrinkage of P. myriotylum hyphae and lysis of the cellular membranes and organelles. Transcriptomics of P. myriotylum exposed to the P. oligandrum VOCs at increasing levels of growth inhibition initially showed a strong upregulation of putative detoxification-related genes that was not maintained later. The inhibition of P. myriotylum growth continued immediately after the exposure to the VOCs was discontinued and led to the reduced infection of its plant hosts. The VOCs produced by P. oligandrum could be another factor alongside hydrolytic enzymes contributing to its ecological role as a microbial parasite in particular ecological niches such as in soil, and may also contribute to the biocontrol of diseases using P. oligandrum commercial preparations. IMPORTANCE Microbe-microbe interactions in nature are multifaceted, with multiple mechanisms of action, and are crucial to how plants interact with microbes. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) have diverse functions, including contributing to parasitism in ecological interactions and potential applications in biocontrol. The microbial parasite P. oligandrum is well known for using hydrolytic enzymes as part of its parasitism. We found that P. oligandrum VOCs reduced the growth of, and caused major damage to, the hyphae of P. myriotylum (a host or prey of P. oligandrum). Transcriptomic analyses of P. myriotylum exposed to the VOCs revealed the upregulation of genes potentially involved in an attempt to detoxify the VOCs. The inhibitory effects of the VOCs had a knock-on effect by reducing the virulence of P. myriotylum toward its plant hosts. The P. oligandrum VOCs could contribute to its ecological role as a microbial parasite. The VOCs analyzed here may also contribute to the biocontrol of diseases using P. oligandrum commercial preparations.

An F-box protein attenuates fungal xylanase-triggered immunity by destabilizing LRR-RLP NbEIX2 in a SOBIR1-dependent manner.

Receptor-like proteins (RLPs) lacking the cytoplasmic kinase domain play crucial roles in plant growth, development and immunity. However, what remains largely elusive is whether RLP protein levels are fine-tuned by E3 ubiquitin ligases, which are employed by receptor-like kinases for signaling attenuation. Nicotiana benthamiana NbEIX2 is a leucine-rich repeat RLP (LRR-RLP) that mediates fungal xylanase-triggered immunity. Here we show that NbEIX2 associates with an F-box protein NbPFB1, which promotes NbEIX2 degradation likely by forming an SCF E3 ubiquitin ligase complex, and negatively regulates NbEIX2-mediated immune responses. NbEIX2 undergoes ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation in planta. Interestingly, NbEIX2 without its cytoplasmic tail is still associated with and destabilized by NbPFB1. In addition, NbPFB1 also associates with and destabilizes NbSOBIR1, a co-receptor of LRR-RLPs, and fails to promote NbEIX2 degradation in the sobir1 mutant. Our findings reveal a distinct model of NbEIX2 degradation, in which an F-box protein destabilizes NbEIX2 indirectly in a SOBIR1-dependent manner.

Pythium myriotylum Is Recovered Most Frequently from Pythium Soft Rot-Infected Ginger Rhizomes in China.

Pythium soft rot is a major soilborne disease of crops such as ginger (Zingiber officinale). Our objective was to identify which Pythium species were associated with Pythium soft rot of ginger in China, where approximately 20% of global ginger production is located. Oomycetes infecting ginger rhizomes from seven provinces were investigated using two molecular markers, the internal transcribed spacer, and cytochrome c oxidase subunit II (CoxII). In total, 81 isolates were recovered; approximately 95% of the isolates were identified as Pythium myriotylum, and the other isolates were identified as either P. aphanidermatum or P. graminicola. Notably, the P. myriotylum isolates from China did not contain the single nucleotide polymorphism in the CoxII sequence found previously in the P. myriotylum isolates infecting ginger in Australia. A subset of 36 isolates was analyzed repeatedly by temperature-dependent growth, severity of disease on ginger plants, and aggressiveness of colonization on ginger rhizome sticks. In the pathogenicity assays, 32 of 36 isolates were able to significantly infect and cause severe disease symptoms on the ginger plants. A range of temperature-dependent growth, disease severity, and aggressiveness in colonization was found, with a significant moderate positive correlation between growth and aggressiveness of colonization of the ginger sticks. This study identified P. myriotylum as the major oomycete pathogen in China from infected ginger rhizomes and suggested that P. myriotylum should be a key target to control soft rot of ginger disease.

LAMP Assay for Distinguishing Fusarium oxysporum and Fusarium commune in Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) Rhizomes.

Yields of edible rhizome from cultivation of the perennial hydrophyte lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) can be severely reduced by rhizome rot disease caused by Fusarium species. There is a lack of rapid field-applicable methods for detection of these pathogens on lotus plants displaying symptoms of rhizome rot. Fusarium commune (91%) and Fusarium oxysporum (9%) were identified at different frequencies from lotus samples showing symptoms of rhizome rot. Because these two species can cause different severity of disease and their morphology is similar, molecular diagnostic-based methods to detect these two species were developed. Based on the comparison of the mitochondrial genome of the two species, three specific DNA loci targets were found. The designed primer sets for conventional PCR, quantitative PCR, and loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) precisely distinguished the above two species when isolated from lotus and other plants. The LAMP detection limits were 10 pg/µl and 1 pg/µl of total DNA for F. commune and F. oxysporum, respectively. We also carried out field-mimicked experiments on lotus seedlings and rhizomes (including inoculated samples and field-diseased samples), and the results indicated that the LAMP primer sets and the supporting portable methods are suitable for rapid diagnosis of the lotus disease in the field. The LAMP-based detection method will aid in the rapid identification of whether F. oxysporum or F. commune is infecting lotus plants with symptoms of rhizome rot and can facilitate efficient pesticide use and prevent disease spread through vegetative propagation of Fusarium-infected lotus rhizomes.

Trehalose-6-phosphate phosphatase inhibitor: N-(phenylthio) phthalimide, which can inhibit the DON biosynthesis of Fusarium graminearum.

Fusarium head blight(FHB)caused by Fusarium graminearum species complex (FGSC) is one of the most important diseases around the world. Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a type of mycotoxin produced by FGSC when infecting cereal crops. It is a serious threat to the health of both humans and livestock. Trehalose-6-phosphate phosphatase (TPP), a conserved metabolic enzyme found in many plants and pathogens, catalyzes the formation of trehalose. N-(phenylthio) phthalimide (NPP) has been reported to inhibit the normal growth of nematodes by inhibiting the activity of TPP, but this inhibitor of nematodes has not previously been tested against F. graminearum. In this study, we found that TPP in F. graminearum (FgTPP) had similar secondary structures and conserved cysteine (Cys356) to nematodes by means of bioinformatics. At the same time, the sensitivity of F. graminearum strains to NPP was determined. NPP exhibited a better inhibitory effect on conidia germination than mycelial growth. In addition, the effects of NPP on DON biosynthesis and trehalose biosynthesis pathway in PH-1 were also determined. We found that NPP decreased DON production, trehalose content, glucose content and TPP enzyme activity but increased trehalose-6-phosphate content and trehalose-6-phosphate synthase (TPS) enzyme activity. Moreover, the expression of TRI1, TRI4, TRI5, TRI6, and TPP genes were downregulated, on the contrary, the TPS gene was upregulated. Finally, in order to further determine the control ability of NPP on DON production in the field, we conducted a series of field experiments, and found that NPP could effectively reduce the DON content in wheat grain and had a general control effect on FHB. In conclusion, the research in this study will provide important theoretical basis for controlling FHB caused by F. graminearum and reducing DON production in the field.

Seed priming and foliar application with jasmonic acid enhance salinity stress tolerance of soybean (Glycine max L.) seedlings.

BACKGROUND: Jasmonic acid (JA) is an important molecule that has a regulatory effect on many physiological processes in plant growth and development under abiotic stress. This study investigated the effect of 60 µmol L-1 of JA in seed priming (P) at 15 °C in darkness for 24 h, foliar application (F), and/or their combination effect (P + F) on two soybean cultivars - 'Nannong 99-6' (salt tolerant) and 'Lee 68' (salt sensitive) - under salinity stress (100 mmol L-1 sodium chloride (NaCl)). RESULTS: Salinity stress reduced seedling growth and biomass compared with that in the control condition. Priming and foliar application with JA and/or their combination significantly improved water potential, osmotic potential, water use efficiency, and relative water content of both cultivars under salinity stress. Similarly, seed priming with JA, foliar application of JA, and/or their combination significantly improved the following properties under salinity stress compared with the untreated seedlings: net photosynthetic rate by 68.03%, 59.85%, and 76.67% respectively; transpiration rate by 74.85%, 55.10%, and 80.26% respectively; stomatal conductance by 69.88%, 78.25%, and 26.24% respectively; intercellular carbon dioxide concentration by 61.64%, 40.06%, and 65.79% respectively; and total chlorophyll content by 47.41%, 41.02%, and 55.73% respectively. Soybean plants primed, sprayed with JA, or treated with their combination enhanced the chlorophyll fluorescence, which was damaged by salinity stress. JA treatments improved abscisic acid, gibberellic acid, and JA levels by 60.57%, 62.50% and 52.25% respectively under salt stress compared with those in the control condition. The transcriptional levels of the FeSOD, POD, CAT, and APX genes increased significantly in the NaCl-stressed seedlings irrespective of JA treatments. Moreover, JA treatment resulted in a reduction of sodium ion concentration and an increase of potassium ion concentrations in the leaf and root of both cultivars regardless of salinity stress. Monodehydroascorbate reductase, dehydroascorbate reductase, and proline contents decreased in the seedlings treated with JA under salinity stress, whereas the ascorbate content increased with JA treatment combined with NaCl stress. CONCLUSION: The application of 60 µmol L-1 JA improved plant growth by regulating the interaction between plant hormones and hydrogen peroxide, which may be involved in auxin signaling and stomatal closure under salt stress. These methods could efficiently protect early seedlings and alleviate salt stress damage and provide possibilities for use in improving soybean growth and inducing tolerance against excessive soil salinity. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Colonies of the fungus Aspergillus niger are highly differentiated to adapt to local carbon source variation.

Saprobic fungi, such as Aspergillus niger, grow as colonies consisting of a network of branching and fusing hyphae that are often considered to be relatively uniform entities in which nutrients can freely move through the hyphae. In nature, different parts of a colony are often exposed to different nutrients. We have investigated, using a multi-omics approach, adaptation of A. niger colonies to spatially separated and compositionally different plant biomass substrates. This demonstrated a high level of intra-colony differentiation, which closely matched the locally available substrate. The part of the colony exposed to pectin-rich sugar beet pulp and to xylan-rich wheat bran showed high pectinolytic and high xylanolytic transcript and protein levels respectively. This study therefore exemplifies the high ability of fungal colonies to differentiate and adapt to local conditions, ensuring efficient use of the available nutrients, rather than maintaining a uniform physiology throughout the colony.

RNAi-suppression of barley caffeic acid O-methyltransferase modifies lignin despite redundancy in the gene family.

Caffeic acid O-methyltransferase (COMT), the lignin biosynthesis gene modified in many brown-midrib high-digestibility mutants of maize and sorghum, was targeted for downregulation in the small grain temperate cereal, barley (Hordeum vulgare), to improve straw properties. Phylogenetic and expression analyses identified the barley COMT orthologue(s) expressed in stems, defining a larger gene family than in brachypodium or rice with three COMT genes expressed in lignifying tissues. RNAi significantly reduced stem COMT protein and enzyme activity, and modestly reduced stem lignin content while dramatically changing lignin structure. Lignin syringyl-to-guaiacyl ratio was reduced by ~50%, the 5-hydroxyguaiacyl (5-OH-G) unit incorporated into lignin at 10--15-fold higher levels than normal, and the amount of p-coumaric acid ester-linked to cell walls was reduced by ~50%. No brown-midrib phenotype was observed in any RNAi line despite significant COMT suppression and altered lignin. The novel COMT gene family structure in barley highlights the dynamic nature of grass genomes. Redundancy in barley COMTs may explain the absence of brown-midrib mutants in barley and wheat. The barley COMT RNAi lines nevertheless have the potential to be exploited for bioenergy applications and as animal feed.

Glucose-Mediated Repression of Plant Biomass Utilization in the White-Rot Fungus Dichomitus squalens.

The extent of carbon catabolite repression (CCR) at a global level is unknown in wood-rotting fungi, which are critical to the carbon cycle and are a source of biotechnological enzymes. CCR occurs in the presence of sufficient concentrations of easily metabolizable carbon sources (e.g., glucose) and involves downregulation of the expression of genes encoding enzymes involved in the breakdown of complex carbon sources. We investigated this phenomenon in the white-rot fungus Dichomitus squalens using transcriptomics and exoproteomics. In D. squalens cultures, approximately 7% of genes were repressed in the presence of glucose compared to Avicel or xylan alone. The glucose-repressed genes included the essential components for utilization of plant biomass-carbohydrate-active enzyme (CAZyme) and carbon catabolic genes. The majority of polysaccharide-degrading CAZyme genes were repressed and included activities toward all major carbohydrate polymers present in plant cell walls, while repression of ligninolytic genes also occurred. The transcriptome-level repression of the CAZyme genes observed on the Avicel cultures was strongly supported by exoproteomics. Protease-encoding genes were generally not glucose repressed, indicating their likely dominant role in scavenging for nitrogen rather than carbon. The extent of CCR is surprising, given that D. squalens rarely experiences high free sugar concentrations in its woody environment, and it indicates that biotechnological use of D. squalens for modification of plant biomass would benefit from derepressed or constitutively CAZyme-expressing strains.IMPORTANCE White-rot fungi are critical to the carbon cycle because they can mineralize all wood components using enzymes that also have biotechnological potential. The occurrence of carbon catabolite repression (CCR) in white-rot fungi is poorly understood. Previously, CCR in wood-rotting fungi has only been demonstrated for a small number of genes. We demonstrated widespread glucose-mediated CCR of plant biomass utilization in the white-rot fungus Dichomitus squalens This indicates that the CCR mechanism has been largely retained even though wood-rotting fungi rarely experience commonly considered CCR conditions in their woody environment. The general lack of repression of genes encoding proteases along with the reduction in secreted CAZymes during CCR suggested that the retention of CCR may be connected with the need to conserve nitrogen use during growth on nitrogen-scarce wood. The widespread repression indicates that derepressed strains could be beneficial for enzyme production.

Dichomitus squalens partially tailors its molecular responses to the composition of solid wood.

White-rot fungi, such as Dichomitus squalens, degrade all wood components and inhabit mixed-wood forests containing both soft- and hardwood species. In this study, we evaluated how D. squalens responded to the compositional differences in softwood [guaiacyl (G) lignin and higher mannan content] and hardwood [syringyl/guaiacyl (S/G) lignin and higher xylan content] using semi-natural solid cultures. Spruce (softwood) and birch (hardwood) sticks were degraded by D. squalens as measured by oxidation of the lignins using 2D-NMR. The fungal response as measured by transcriptomics, proteomics and enzyme activities showed a partial tailoring to wood composition. Mannanolytic transcripts and proteins were more abundant in spruce cultures, while a proportionally higher xylanolytic activity was detected in birch cultures. Both wood types induced manganese peroxidases to a much higher level than laccases, but higher transcript and protein levels of the manganese peroxidases were observed on the G-lignin rich spruce. Overall, the molecular responses demonstrated a stronger adaptation to the spruce rather than birch composition, possibly because D. squalens is mainly found degrading softwoods in nature, which supports the ability of the solid wood cultures to reflect the natural environment.

Induction of Genes Encoding Plant Cell Wall-Degrading Carbohydrate-Active Enzymes by Lignocellulose-Derived Monosaccharides and Cellobiose in the White-Rot Fungus Dichomitus squalens.

Fungi can decompose plant biomass into small oligo- and monosaccharides to be used as carbon sources. Some of these small molecules may induce metabolic pathways and the production of extracellular enzymes targeted for degradation of plant cell wall polymers. Despite extensive studies in ascomycete fungi, little is known about the nature of inducers for the lignocellulolytic systems of basidiomycetes. In this study, we analyzed six sugars known to induce the expression of lignocellulolytic genes in ascomycetes for their role as inducers in the basidiomycete white-rot fungus Dichomitus squalens using a transcriptomic approach. This identified cellobiose and l-rhamnose as the main inducers of cellulolytic and pectinolytic genes, respectively, of D. squalens Our results also identified differences in gene expression patterns between dikaryotic and monokaryotic strains of D. squalens cultivated on plant biomass-derived monosaccharides and the disaccharide cellobiose. This suggests that despite conservation of the induction between these two genetic forms of D. squalens, the fine-tuning in the gene regulation of lignocellulose conversion is differently organized in these strains.IMPORTANCE Wood-decomposing basidiomycete fungi have a major role in the global carbon cycle and are promising candidates for lignocellulosic biorefinery applications. However, information on which components trigger enzyme production is currently lacking, which is crucial for the efficient use of these fungi in biotechnology. In this study, transcriptomes of the white-rot fungus Dichomitus squalens from plant biomass-derived monosaccharide and cellobiose cultures were studied to identify compounds that induce the expression of genes involved in plant biomass degradation.

Transcriptomic responses of mixed cultures of ascomycete fungi to lignocellulose using dual RNA-seq reveal inter-species antagonism and limited beneficial effects on CAZyme expression.

Gaining new knowledge through fungal monoculture responses to lignocellulose is a widely used approach that can lead to better cocktails for lignocellulose saccharification (the enzymatic release of sugars which are subsequently used to make biofuels). However, responses in lignocellulose mixed cultures are rarely studied in the same detail even though in nature fungi often degrade lignocellulose as mixed communities. Using a dual RNA-seq approach, we describe the first study of the transcriptional responses of wild-type strains of Aspergillus niger, Trichoderma reesei and Penicillium chrysogenum in two and three mixed species shake-flask cultures with wheat straw. Based on quantification of species-specific rRNA, a set of conditions was identified where mixed cultures could be sampled so as to obtain sufficient RNA-seq reads for analysis from each species. The number of differentially-expressed genes varied from a couple of thousand to fewer than one hundred. The proportion of carbohydrate active enzyme (CAZy) encoding transcripts was lower in the majority of the mixed cultures compared to the respective straw monocultures. A small subset of P. chrysogenum CAZy genes showed five to ten-fold significantly increased transcript abundance in a two-species mixed culture with T. reesei. However, a substantial number of T. reesei CAZy transcripts showed reduced abundance in mixed cultures. The highly induced genes in mixed cultures indicated that fungal antagonism was a major part of the mixed cultures. In line with this, secondary metabolite producing gene clusters showed increased transcript abundance in mixed cultures and also mixed cultures with T. reesei led to a decrease in the mycelial biomass of A. niger. Significantly higher monomeric sugar release from straw was only measured using a minority of the mixed culture filtrates and there was no overall improvement. This study demonstrates fungal interaction with changes in transcripts, enzyme activities and biomass in the mixed cultures and whilst there were minor beneficial effects for CAZy transcripts and activities, the competitive interaction between T. reesei and the other fungi was the most prominent feature of this study.

The role of carbon starvation in the induction of enzymes that degrade plant-derived carbohydrates in Aspergillus niger.

Fungi are an important source of enzymes for saccharification of plant polysaccharides and production of biofuels. Understanding of the regulation and induction of expression of genes encoding these enzymes is still incomplete. To explore the induction mechanism, we analysed the response of the industrially important fungus Aspergillus niger to wheat straw, with a focus on events occurring shortly after exposure to the substrate. RNA sequencing showed that the transcriptional response after 6h of exposure to wheat straw was very different from the response at 24h of exposure to the same substrate. For example, less than half of the genes encoding carbohydrate active enzymes that were induced after 24h of exposure to wheat straw, were also induced after 6h exposure. Importantly, over a third of the genes induced after 6h of exposure to wheat straw were also induced during 6h of carbon starvation, indicating that carbon starvation is probably an important factor in the early response to wheat straw. The up-regulation of the expression of a high number of genes encoding CAZymes that are active on plant-derived carbohydrates during early carbon starvation suggests that these enzymes could be involved in a scouting role during starvation, releasing inducing sugars from complex plant polysaccharides. We show, using proteomics, that carbon-starved cultures indeed release CAZymes with predicted activity on plant polysaccharides. Analysis of the enzymatic activity and the reaction products, indicates that these proteins are enzymes that can degrade various plant polysaccharides to generate both known, as well as potentially new, inducers of CAZymes.

Biological Control of a Root-Knot Nematode Meloidogyne incognita Infection of Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) by the Oomycete Biocontrol Agent Pythium oligandrum.

The biocontrol agent Pythium oligandrum, which is a member of the phylum Oomycota, can control diseases caused by a taxonomically wide range of plant pathogens, including fungi, bacteria, and oomycetes. However, whether P. oligandrum could control diseases caused by plant root-knot nematodes (RKNs) was unknown. We investigated a recently isolated P. oligandrum strain GAQ1, and the P. oligandrum strain CBS530.74, for the control of an RKN Meloidogyne incognita infection of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.). Initially, P. oligandrum culture filtrates were found to be lethal to M. incognita second-stage juveniles (J2s) with up to 84% mortality 24 h after treatment compared to 14% in the control group. Consistent with the lethality to M. incognita J2s, tomato roots treated with P. oligandrum culture filtrates reduced their attraction of nematodes, and the number of nematodes penetrating the roots was reduced by up to 78%. In a greenhouse pot trial, the P. oligandrum GAQ1 inoculation of tomato plants significantly reduced the gall number by 58% in plants infected with M. incognita. Notably, the P. oligandrum GAQ1 mycelial treatment significantly increased tomato plant height (by 36%), weight (by 27%), and root weight (by 48%). A transcriptome analysis of tomato seedling roots inoculated with the P. oligandrum GAQ1 strain identified ~2500 differentially expressed genes. The enriched GO terms and annotations in the up-regulated genes suggested a modulation of the plant hormone-signaling and defense-related pathways in response to P. oligandrum. In conclusion, our results support that P. oligandrum GAQ1 can serve as a potential biocontrol agent for M. incognita control in tomato. Multiple mechanisms appear to contribute to the biocontrol effect, including the direct inhibition of M. incognita, the potential priming of tomato plant defenses, and plant growth promotion.

Growth, Enzymatic, and Transcriptomic Analysis of xyr1 Deletion Reveals a Major Regulator of Plant Biomass-Degrading Enzymes in Trichoderma harzianum.

The regulation of plant biomass degradation by fungi is critical to the carbon cycle, and applications in bioproducts and biocontrol. Trichoderma harzianum is an important plant biomass degrader, enzyme producer, and biocontrol agent, but few putative major transcriptional regulators have been deleted in this species. The T. harzianum ortholog of the transcriptional activator XYR1/XlnR/XLR-1 was deleted, and the mutant strains were analyzed through growth profiling, enzymatic activities, and transcriptomics on cellulose. From plate cultures, the Δxyr1 mutant had reduced growth on D-xylose, xylan, and cellulose, and from shake-flask cultures with cellulose, the Δxyr1 mutant had ~90% lower ß-glucosidase activity, and no detectable ß-xylosidase or cellulase activity. The comparison of the transcriptomes from 18 h shake-flask cultures on D-fructose, without a carbon source, and cellulose, showed major effects of XYR1 deletion whereby the Δxyr1 mutant on cellulose was transcriptionally most similar to the cultures without a carbon source. The cellulose induced 43 plant biomass-degrading CAZymes including xylanases as well as cellulases, and most of these had massively lower expression in the Δxyr1 mutant. The expression of a subset of carbon catabolic enzymes, other transcription factors, and sugar transporters was also lower in the Δxyr1 mutant on cellulose. In summary, T. harzianum XYR1 is the master regulator of cellulases and xylanases, as well as regulating carbon catabolic enzymes.

A mechanistic study identifying improved technology critical metal delamination from printed circuit boards at lower power sonications in a deep eutectic solvent.

Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) are an emerging class of ionic liquids that offer a solution to reclaiming technology critical metals (TCMs) from electronic waste, with potential for improved life cycle analysis. The high viscosities typical of DESs, however, impose mass transport limitations such that passive TCM removal generally requires immersion over extended durations, in some cases in the order of hours. It is postulated that, through the targeted application of power ultrasound, delamination of key structures in electronic components immersed in DESs can be significantly accelerated, thereby enabling rapid recovery of TCMs. In this paper, we fully characterise cavitation in a Choline Chloride-Ethylene Glycol DES as a function of sonotrode input power, by the acoustic detection of the bubble collapse shockwave content generated during sonications at more than 20 input powers over the available range. This justifies the selection of two powers for a detailed study of ultrasonically enhanced TCM-delamination from printed circuit boards (PCBs). Dual-perspective high-speed imaging is employed, which facilitates simultaneous observation of TCM removal, and the cavitation evolution and interaction with the PCB surface. Bubble jetting is identified as a key contributor to initial pitting of the TCM layers, exposing the larger underlying copper layer, with the contributions of additional inertial cavitation-mediated phenomena such as bubble-collapse shockwaves also demonstrated as important for delamination. Optimal cavitation activity throughout the sonication then promotes etching of the copper base layer of the PCB structure targeted by the DES, liberating the overlaying TCMs in sections as large as 0.79 mm2. We report a thirtyfold improvement in processing time compared to passive delamination, with sonications at the lower power outperforming those at the higher power. The results demonstrate the potential for industrially scalable recovery of TCMs from the growing quantities of global e-waste, using combined power ultrasonics and DESs.