DSM-5 eating disorder prevalence, gender differences, and mental health associations in United States military veterans.

OBJECTIVE: Little is known about prevalence estimates of new and revised DSM-5 eating disorders diagnoses in general, and especially among high-risk, underserved and diverse eating disorder populations. The aim of the current study was to determine prevalence, gender differences and correlates of DSM-5 eating disorders in veterans. METHOD: Iraq and Afghanistan war era veterans (N = 1,121, 51.2% women) completed the Eating Disorder Diagnostic Scale-5 and validated measures of eating pathology and mental health between July 2014 and September 2019. RESULTS: Overall more women than men (32.8% vs. 18.8%, p < .001) reported symptoms consistent with a DSM-5 eating disorder. Prevalence estimates (women vs. men) for the specific diagnoses were: Anorexia Nervosa (AN; 0.0% vs. 0.0%), Bulimia Nervosa (BN; 6.1% vs. 3.5%), Binge-Eating Disorder (BED; 4.4% vs. 2.9%), Atypical AN (AAN; 13.6% vs. 4.9%), Subclinical BN (0.0% vs. 0.2%), Subclinical BED (1.4% vs. 0.6%), Purging Disorder (2.1% vs. 0.7%), and Night Eating Syndrome (NES; 5.2% vs. 6.0%). Women were more likely to have BN or AAN, and there was no difference for BED or NES among genders. The eating disorder group had a higher mean BMI, and significantly greater eating pathology and mental health symptoms than the non-eating disorder group. DISCUSSION: Approximately one-third of women, and one-fifth of men, reported symptoms consistent with a DSM-5 eating disorder diagnosis. These high prevalence estimates across genders, and associated mental health concerns, suggest an urgent need to better understand and address eating disorders in military and veteran populations.

Correspondence Between Retrospective and Momentary Self-Reported Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms: Evidence for Peak and End Effects in Veterans.

Validated retrospective self-report symptom rating scales are recommended for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) screening and treatment. However, such reports may be affected by a respondent's most intense ("peak") or most recent ("end") symptoms. The present study evaluated the correspondence between PTSD symptoms assessed using a standard past-month retrospective rating scale and recorded by ecological momentary assessment (EMA) over the same period and tested hypotheses that retrospective scores would be predicted by peak and end-period momentary symptoms. Male U.S. veterans (N = 35) who served post-9/11 completed the PTSD Symptom Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5) at baseline and 1 month later. For 28 days during the intervening period, they received quasi-randomly timed text prompts to complete a modified version of the PCL-5 at that moment. Using multiple regression modeling, controlling for the number of completed EMAs and time (days) since the last EMA, we assessed the predictability of follow-up retrospective PCL-5 scores by (a) the mean of all momentary scores and (b) peak and last-day momentary scores. Retrospective PCL-5 scores were closest to peak scores, d = -0.31, and substantially higher than overall mean, d = 0.99, and last-day momentary scores, d = 0.94. In the regression model, peak symptom experiences and last-day momentary symptoms uniquely predicted follow-up PCL-5 scores over and above significant prediction by overall mean momentary symptom scores. In sum, participants' self-reported past-month PTSD symptom severity did not simply reflect an average over time. Additional questioning is needed to understand peak and recent symptom periods reflected in these estimates.

Feasibility and preliminary efficacy of dialectical behaviour therapy skills groups for Veterans with suicidal ideation: pilot.

BACKGROUND: Veterans are at high risk for suicide; emotion dysregulation may confer additional risk. Dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT) is a well-supported intervention for suicide attempt reduction in individuals with emotion dysregulation, but is complex and multi-component. The skills group component of DBT (DBT-SG) has been associated with reduced suicidal ideation and emotion dysregulation. DBT-SG for Veterans at risk for suicide has not been studied. AIMS: This study sought to evaluate the feasibility and acceptability of DBT-SG in Veterans and to gather preliminary evidence for its efficacy in reducing suicidal ideation and emotion dysregulation and increasing coping skills. METHOD: Veterans with suicidal ideation and emotion dysregulation (N = 17) enrolled in an uncontrolled pilot study of a 26-week DBT-SG as an adjunct to mental health care-as-usual. RESULTS: Veterans attended an average 66% of DBT-SG sessions. Both Veterans and their primary mental health providers believed DBT-SG promoted Veterans' use of coping skills to reduce suicide risk, and they were satisfied with the treatment. Paired sample t-tests comparing baseline scores with later scores indicated suicidal ideation and emotion dysregulation decreased at post-treatment (d = 1.88, 2.75, respectively) and stayed reduced at 3-month follow-up (d = 2.08, 2.59, respectively). Likewise, skillful coping increased at post-treatment (d = 0.85) and was maintained at follow-up (d = 0.91). CONCLUSIONS: An uncontrolled pilot study indicated DBT-SG was feasible, acceptable, and demonstrated potential efficacy in reducing suicidal ideation and emotion dysregulation among Veterans. A randomized controlled study of DBT-SG with Veterans at risk for suicide is warranted.

Use of Non-Pharmacological Pain Treatment Modalities Among Veterans with Chronic Pain: Results from a Cross-Sectional Survey.

BACKGROUND: Despite strong evidence for the effectiveness of non-pharmacological pain treatment modalities (NPMs), little is known about the prevalence or correlates of NPM use. OBJECTIVE: This study examined rates and correlates of NPM use in a sample of veterans who served during recent conflicts. DESIGN: We examined rates and demographic and clinical correlates of self-reported NPM use (operationalized as psychological/behavioral therapies, exercise/movement therapies, and manual therapies). We calculated descriptive statistics and examined bivariate associations and multivariable associations using logistic regression. PARTICIPANTS: Participants were 460 veterans endorsing pain lasting ≥ 3 months who completed the baseline survey of the Women Veterans Cohort Study (response rate 7.7%. MAIN MEASURES: Outcome was self-reported use of NPMs in the past 12 months. KEY RESULTS: Veterans were 33.76 years old (SD = 10.72), 56.3% female, and 80.2% White. Regarding NPM use, 22.6% reported using psychological/behavioral, 50.9% used exercise/movement and 51.7% used manual therapies. Veterans with a college degree (vs. no degree; OR = 2.51, 95% CI = 1.46, 4.30, p = 0.001) or those with worse mental health symptoms (OR = 2.88, 95% CI = 2.11, 3.93, p < 0.001) were more likely to use psychological/behavioral therapies. Veterans who were female (OR = 0.63, 95% CI = 0.43, 0.93, p = 0.02) or who used non-opioid pain medications (OR = 1.82, 95% CI = 1.146, 2.84, p = 0.009) were more likely to use exercise/movement therapies. Veterans who were non-White (OR = 0.57, 95% CI = 0.5, 0.94, p = 0.03), with greater educational attainment (OR = 2.11, 95% CI = 1.42, 3.15, p < 0.001), or who used non-opioid pain medication (OR = 1.71, 95% CI = 1.09, 2.68, p = 0.02) were more likely to use manual therapies. CONCLUSIONS: Results identified demographic and clinical characteristics among different NPMs, which may indicate differences in veteran treatment preferences or provider referral patterns. Further study of provider referral patterns and veteran treatment preferences is needed to inform interventions to increase NPM utilization. Research is also need to identify demographic and clinical correlates of clinical outcomes related to NPM use.

Positive and negative affect in cocaine use disorder treatment: Change across time and relevance to treatment outcome.

BACKGROUND: Cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT) for substance use disorder is empirically supported, and may be associated with change in affect over time. OBJECTIVES: Understanding the role of affect in cocaine use disorder could help to improve CBT outcomes. METHODS: This secondary analysis included 140 adults with cocaine use disorder, 57.9% female, drawn from two randomized controlled studies of web-based cognitive-behavior therapy who completed the Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS) before and during treatment. RESULTS: In mixed-effects regression models, baseline negative affect (NA) scores were not associated with self-reported cocaine use during treatment, but baseline PA scores were associated with less frequent cocaine use (ß = -0.04, p = .02). During treatment, NA scores reduced over time in CBT and treatment as usual (ß = -0.27, p < .01), although PA scores did not change. Higher weekly NA scores were associated with weekly cocaine use (ß = .02, SE = .01, t(746.15) = 2.37, p = .02), although weekly PANAS PA scores were not associated with weekly cocaine use. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Results indicated that individuals with higher baseline PA were more likely to abstain from cocaine use during treatment, even when controlling for baseline cocaine use frequency. Although baseline NA was not associated with cocaine use, NA during treatment was associated with greater cocaine use. SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE: PA at baseline and NA during treatment were associated with cocaine use. If findings are replicated, treatment developers may wish to include treatment interventions to boost early PA and reduce NA throughout treatment. (Am J Addict 2018;XX:1-8).

Emotion regulation strategies in individuals with cocaine use disorder maintained on methadone.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Cognitive reappraisal (CR) and emotional suppression (ES), two emotion regulation strategies, are disrupted in other substance use disorders but have not been studied in cocaine dependence. METHODS: Methadone-maintained individuals with cocaine dependence (N = 72) completed assessment of CR, ES, cocaine use, and psychiatric symptoms. RESULTS: CR scores were associated with lower depression scores (r = -.29, p = .01), but not with cocaine abstinence during 8 weeks of treatment (r = .12, p = .29). CONCLUSIONS AND SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE: CR appeared relevant to cocaine-dependent individuals' depression, but was not associated with abstinence or treatment outcome. (Am J Addict 2016;25:529-532).

Assessment concordance and predictive validity of self-report and biological assay of cocaine use in treatment trials.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Cocaine use during randomized clinical trials (RCTs) is typically assessed by participant self-report or biological assay (eg, urinalysis). There have been few direct comparisons of these assessment methods to investigate their concordance and their predictive validity for cocaine use and psychosocial outcomes following treatment completion. METHOD: In a combined sample of 380 participants from 5 cocaine RCTs, the concordance between cocaine use assessment methods was examined. Sequential multiple linear and logistic regression models evaluated the predictive validity of two assessment methods for cocaine use and psychosocial outcomes assessed at 1, 3, 6, and 12 months after treatment. RESULTS: Concordance for self-report and urinalysis indicators of cocaine use was high within-treatment (k = 0.72) and moderate during follow-up (k = 0.51). Rates of concordance were higher in studies using test cups with immediate urinalysis results. Regression analyses indicated that self-report data within-treatment predicted self-reported cocaine use at all post-treatment points (ß 0.22-0.30, p < .01), while urinalysis results within-treatment predicted urinalysis results at 1, 3, and 6 months post-treatment (OR 3.92-20.99, p < .05). Cocaine-positive urinalyses within-treatment were negatively associated with a composite "good outcome" indicator at 1 and 3 months post-treatment (OR 0.17-0.32, p < .05). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest a significant role of method variance in predicting post-treatment outcomes from within-treatment cocaine use indices. SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE: Results support recommendations that cocaine treatment trials should include both biological assay and self-report assessment. Test cups may facilitate increased self-report accuracy.

Development of the Therapist Empathy Scale.

BACKGROUND: Few measures exist to examine therapist empathy as it occurs in session. AIMS: A 9-item observer rating scale, called the Therapist Empathy Scale (TES), was developed based on Watson's (1999) work to assess affective, cognitive, attitudinal, and attunement aspects of therapist empathy. The aim of this study was to evaluate the inter-rater reliability, internal consistency, and construct and criterion validity of the TES. METHOD: Raters evaluated therapist empathy in 315 client sessions conducted by 91 therapists, using data from a multi-site therapist training trial (Martino et al., 2010) in Motivational Interviewing (MI). RESULTS: Inter-rater reliability (ICC = .87 to .91) and internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha = .94) were high. Confirmatory factor analyses indicated some support for single-factor fit. Convergent validity was supported by correlations between TES scores and MI fundamental adherence (r range .50 to .67) and competence scores (r range .56 to .69). Discriminant validity was indicated by negative or nonsignificant correlations between TES and MI-inconsistent behavior (r range .05 to -.33). CONCLUSIONS: The TES demonstrates excellent inter-rater reliability and internal consistency. RESULTS indicate some support for a single-factor solution and convergent and discriminant validity. Future studies should examine the use of the TES to evaluate therapist empathy in different psychotherapy approaches and to determine the impact of therapist empathy on client outcome.

Barriers and Facilitators to Dialectical Behavior Therapy Skills Groups in the Veterans Health Administration.

INTRODUCTION: Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) is a multimodal evidence-based suicide prevention psychotherapy with barriers to full implementation. This study qualitatively examined barriers and facilitators to the DBT skills group treatment mode, which can be implemented as a stand-alone intervention. Using data from a national mixed-methods program evaluation of DBT in the Veterans Health Administration (VHA), this is the first article to examine barriers and facilitators to DBT skills groups implemented with a DBT consultation team or as a stand-alone intervention. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A subset of data from semi-structured telephone interviews of six clinicians and three administrators (n = 9 respondents) was analyzed to provide complementarity and expansion on prior quantitative findings. The data were coded using an iterative process based on content analysis and a codebook based on the Promoting Action on Research Implementation in Health Services framework. The study was approved by the institutional review board for the Palo Alto VA Health Care System. RESULTS: Barriers and facilitators were organized by Promoting Action on Research Implementation in Health Services domains of evidence, context, and facilitation. Results showed how reduced leadership support and low receptivity to providing DBT skills groups functioned as barriers and also identified a barrier not described earlier in the literature: the perception that this group could conflict with expanding access to care for more veterans. The results showed how leadership supported implementation, including by mapping clinic grids and supporting training, and also revealed how a supportive culture among providers facilitated division of labor between skills group providers, and how offering a treatment that filled a gap in services supported the group. At some sites, a provider with prior DBT experience was instrumental in starting DBT skills groups or developing ongoing training. CONCLUSIONS: Qualitatively analyzed barriers and facilitators to a group-delivered suicide prevention intervention, DBT skills groups, expanded on quantitative findings on the importance of leadership support, culture, and training as facilitators. Future work implementing DBT skills group as a stand-alone treatment will need to address the barrier of receptivity and perceived barriers about access to care.

Clinical documentation of patient identities in the electronic health record: Ethical principles to consider.

The American Psychological Association's multicultural guidelines encourage psychologists to use language sensitive to the lived experiences of the individuals they serve. In organized care settings, psychologists have important decisions to make about the language they use in the electronic health record (EHR), which may be accessible to both the patient and other health care providers. Language about patient identities (including but not limited to race, ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation) is especially important, but little guidance exists for psychologists on how and when to document these identities in the EHR. Moreover, organizational mandates, patient preferences, fluid identities, and shifting language may suggest different documentation approaches, posing ethical dilemmas for psychologists to navigate. In this article, we review the purposes of documentation in organized care settings, review how each of the five American Psychological Association Code of Ethics' General Principles relates to identity language in EHR documentation, and propose a set of questions for psychologists to ask themselves and their patients when making choices about documenting identity variables in the EHR. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Trauma experience among homeless female veterans: correlates and impact on housing, clinical, and psychosocial outcomes.

This study examined lifetime exposure to traumatic events as reported by 581 homeless female veterans enrolled in a Homeless Women Veterans Program across 11 sites to characterize the types of trauma they experienced; their correlation with baseline characteristics; and their association with housing, clinical outcomes, and psychosocial functioning over a 1-year treatment period. Almost all participants endorsed multiple types and episodes of traumatic events. Among the most common were having someone close experience a serious or life-threatening illness (82%) and rape (67%). Exploratory factor analysis revealed 6 potential trauma categories: being robbed, experiencing accident or disasters, illness or death of others, combat, sexual assault, and physical assault. At baseline, trauma from sexual assault was associated with more days homeless (ß = .18, p < .001), trauma from accidents or disasters was associated with poorer physical health (ß = -.23, p < .001), and trauma from being robbed was related to greater use of drugs (ß = .22, p < .001). Trauma reported at baseline, however, was not predictive of 1-year outcomes, suggesting type and frequency of trauma does not negatively affect the housing gains homeless women veterans can achieve through homeless services.

Therapist training in empirically supported treatments: a review of evaluation methods for short- and long-term outcomes.

Therapist training efforts have been assessed using several outcomes. A model for evaluating therapist training in empirically supported treatments is presented, adapted from Kirkpatrick's (in: Craig and Bittel (eds.) Training and development handbook, 1967) training evaluation model. The adapted framework includes short-term outcomes, such as reactions to training and changes in attitude, knowledge, or skills, and longer-term outcomes, such as changes in therapist behavior in practice or client outcomes. Evaluation methods for these outcomes are reviewed, with information on their validity, reliability, and feasibility. An agenda for further research to improve therapist training evaluation is presented, with discussion of how evaluation can inform other areas of the field.

Is Emotion Dysregulation Associated With Suicidal Ideation in Post 9/11 Veterans?

Emotion dysregulation, a risk factor for suicide ideation and attempts, has not been studied in U.S. veterans of Operations Enduring and Iraqi Freedom and New Dawn (OEF/OIF/OND). Data were collected through standardized telephone interviews and computer-based surveys from 278 OEF/OIF/OND veterans (70.6% male, 29.4% female). Bivariate analyses indicated that emotion dysregulation was associated with suicidal ideation during the past-three-months (r = 0.30, p < 0.05) and lifetime suicide attempts (r = 0.21, p < 0.05). When PTSD and depression symptoms were added to a sequential logistic regression model, emotion dysregulation was no longer significantly associated with ideation or attempt. Emotion dysregulation was associated with suicidal ideation and attempt; however, current distress had greater associations. Dysregulation is one of several factors in veteran suicide risk.

Military sexual trauma and suicidal ideation in VHA-care-seeking OEF/OIF/OND veterans without mental health diagnosis or treatment.

Sexual trauma is a suicide risk factor. While military sexual trauma (MST) is frequently associated with suicidal ideation (SI) in women and men veterans who served in recent conflicts, less is known about MST's relationship to SI in veterans who have no documented mental health concerns. Of the 1.1 million post-9/11 veterans enrolled in the Veterans Healthcare Administration (VHA) we examined 41,658 (12.3% women, 87.7% men) without evidence of mental health diagnosis or treatment and who were screened for MST and SI using the standard VHA clinical reminders between 2008 and 2013. Relative risk estimates were generated using separate models for women and men. MST was reported by 27.9% of women and 2.9% of men; SI by 14.7% and 16.5%, respectively. The adjusted relative risk of MST on SI was 1.65 (95% CI 1.35, 2.00) in women, and 1.49 (95% CI 1.26, 1.75) in men. In this sample of veterans without evidence of mental health diagnosis or treatment, MST was associated with a high risk of SI in both genders. Positive MST screening should prompt SI screening and risk management if indicated, and further study of barriers to mental healthcare among MST survivors at risk for suicide is warranted.

Themes in experiences of PTSD symptoms and relationships among male veterans with risky sexual behavior.

OBJECTIVE: United States veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms are at elevated risk for high-risk sexual behavior (HRSB). Although quantitative research has examined relationships between PTSD symptoms and HRSB, qualitative research to understand the lived experiences of veterans with PTSD symptoms and HRSB has not been conducted. METHOD: Qualitative interviews were conducted with N = 29 male veterans of Operation Enduring Freedom or Operation Iraqi Freedom who had PTSD symptoms and reported recent HRSB. The interviews were analyzed using a phenomenological framework. RESULTS: Six themes emerged: (a) avoiding social contact due to feeling different since return from service; (b) effortful self-management; (c) supportive relationships; (d) sex as a means to an end; (e) sex, risk, and intimacy; and (f) responsibility and growth. CONCLUSION: Male veterans with PTSD symptoms and HRSB reported engagement in significant self-management to reengage in life, and still reported high levels of difficulty in relationships. They described both wanting to avoid perceived risk associated with intimate relationships and wanting to take risks that caused them to feel alive. Implications for treatment include increased efforts to facilitate coping, to recognize and moderate risk-taking urges, and to build intimacy and trust. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Sex Differences in Military Sexual Trauma and Severe Self-Directed Violence.

INTRODUCTION: Previous research has demonstrated an association between military sexual trauma and risk for suicide; however, risk for self-directed violence such as suicide attempt or nonsuicidal self-injury following military sexual trauma is understudied. This study examines the relationship between military sexual trauma and serious self-directed violence resulting in hospitalization, as well as whether this relationship differs by sex. METHODS: Participants were 750,176 Operations Enduring Freedom/Iraqi Freedom/New Dawn veterans who were enrolled in Veterans Health Administration care during the period of October 1, 2001-September 30, 2014 and who were screened for military sexual trauma. Data were analyzed in 2019. Bivariate analyses and Cox proportional hazards regression models were employed. RESULTS: Women veterans were more likely to screen positive for military sexual trauma (21.33% vs 1.63%), and women and men were equally likely to experience serious self-directed violence (1.19% women vs 1.18% men). Controlling for demographic variables and psychiatric morbidity, military sexual trauma predicted serious self-directed violence for both men and women. Further, men with military sexual trauma were 15% less likely to experience self-directed violence compared with women with military sexual trauma (hazard ratio=0.85, 95% CI=0.74, 0.98). CONCLUSIONS: Military sexual trauma is associated with risk for serious self-directed violence for both men and women veterans, and the relationship may be pronounced among women. Results underscore the importance of incorporating military sexual trauma into treatment and preventative efforts for self-directed violence.

Clinical characteristics of veterans with gambling disorders seeking pain treatment.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the relationships between gambling disorder, pain, and suicide attempts among US military veterans using Veterans Health Administration (VHA) pain-related services. METHODS: Retrospective cohort analysis of 221,817 veterans using pain services was included in the analysis. First, differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics (i.e., psychiatric comorbidities and pain-related variables) were analyzed according to gambling disorder. Second, we performed logistic regression analyses to assess the association between gambling disorder and suicide attempts. RESULTS: Female sex, depressive, alcohol, drug and tobacco use disorders are positively associated with gambling disorders, while severe pain score is negatively associated with gambling disorders. Logistic regression analysis showed that gambling disorder diagnosis was associated suicide attempt in veterans who received a visit for pain in VHA in the past year. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that gambling disorder in female veterans and suicide attempts in veterans with gambling disorder should not be underestimated and warrants further consideration. Moreover, the result that veterans with severe pain may be less likely to have a diagnosis of gambling disorder needs to be confirmed.

Gender Differences in Suicide and Self-Directed Violence Risk Among Veterans With Post-traumatic Stress and Substance Use Disorders.

BACKGROUND: Veterans have a high prevalence of both post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and substance use disorders (SUDs), which are related to suicide risk. Exploring gender-related differences in suicidal behavior risk among this subgroup of veterans is important to improve prevention and treatment strategies. To date, few studies have explored these differences. METHODS: The sample included 352,476 men and women veterans from the Women Veterans Cohort Study with a diagnosis of PTSD. First, we conducted analyses to assess gender-related differences in sociodemographic and clinical variables at baseline, as well as by suicidal behavior. Then, we conducted a series of Cox proportional hazards regression models to estimate the hazard ratios of engaging in self-directed violence (SDV) and dying by suicide by SUD status and gender, controlling for potential confounders. RESULTS: Adjusted analyses showed that, among veterans with PTSD, the presence of a SUD significantly increased the risk of SDV and death by suicide. Women with PTSD had a decreased risk of dying by suicide compared with men. No gender-related difference was observed for SDV. SUD increased the risk of SDV behavior in both women and men but increased the risk of dying by suicide only among men. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings revealed gender-related differences in SDV and suicide among veterans with a PTSD diagnosis with or without a SUD. Our study, along with the increasing numbers of women serving in the military, stresses the need to conduct gender-based analyses to help improve prevention and treatment strategies.

Just showing up is not enough: Homework adherence and outcome in cognitive-behavioral therapy for cocaine dependence.

OBJECTIVE: Homework in cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) provides opportunities to practice skills. In prior studies, homework adherence was associated with improved outcome across a variety of disorders. Few studies have examined whether the relationship between homework adherence and outcome is maintained after treatment end or is independent of treatment attendance. METHOD: This study combined data from 4 randomized clinical trials of CBT for cocaine dependence to examine relationships among homework adherence, participant variables, and cocaine use outcomes during treatment and at follow-up. The data set included only participants who attended at least 2 CBT sessions to allow for assignment and return of homework (N = 158). RESULTS: Participants returned slightly less than half (41.1%) of assigned homework. Longitudinal random effects regression suggested a greater reduction in cocaine use during treatment and through 12-month follow-up for participants who completed half or more of assigned homework (3-way interaction), F(2, 910.69) = 4.28, p = .01. In multiple linear regression, the percentage of homework adherence was associated with greater number of cocaine-negative urine toxicology screens during treatment, even when accounting for baseline cocaine use frequency and treatment attendance; at 3 months follow-up, multiple logistic regression indicated homework adherence was associated with cocaine-negative urine toxicology screen, controlling for baseline cocaine use and treatment attendance. CONCLUSIONS: These results extend findings from prior studies regarding the importance of homework adherence by demonstrating associations among homework and cocaine use outcomes during treatment and up to 12 months after, independent of treatment attendance and baseline cocaine use severity. (PsycINFO Database Record