The Ocular Glymphatic System-Current Understanding and Future Perspectives.

The ocular glymphatic system subserves the bidirectional polarized fluid transport in the optic nerve, whereby cerebrospinal fluid from the brain is directed along periarterial spaces towards the eye, and fluid from the retina is directed along perivenous spaces following upon its axonal transport across the glial lamina. Fluid homeostasis and waste removal are vital for retinal function, making the ocular glymphatic fluid pathway a potential route for targeted manipulation to combat blinding ocular diseases such as age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, and glaucoma. Several lines of work investigating the bidirectional ocular glymphatic transport with varying methodologies have developed diverging mechanistic models, which has created some confusion about how ocular glymphatic transport should be defined. In this review, we provide a comprehensive summary of the current understanding of the ocular glymphatic system, aiming to address misconceptions and foster a cohesive understanding of the topic.

Age- and glaucoma-induced changes to the ocular glymphatic system.

The ocular glymphatic system supports bidirectional fluid transport along the optic nerve, thereby removes metabolic wastes including amyloid-ß. To better understand this biological process, we examined the distributions of intravitreally and intracisternally infused tracers in full-length optic nerves from different age groups of mice. Aging was linked to globally impaired ocular glymphatic fluid transport, similar to what has seen previously in the brain. Aging also reduced the pupillary responsiveness to light stimulation and abolished light-induced facilitation in anterograde ocular glymphatic flow. In contrast to normal aging, in the DBA/2 J model of glaucoma, we found a pathological increase of glymphatic fluid transport to the anterior optic nerve that was associated with dilation of the perivascular spaces. Thus, aging and glaucoma have fundamentally different effects on ocular glymphatic fluid transport. Manipulation of glymphatic fluid transport might therefore present a new target for the treatment of glaucoma.

The Glymphatic System (En)during Inflammation.

The glymphatic system is a fluid-transport system that accesses all regions of the brain. It facilitates the exchange of cerebrospinal fluid and interstitial fluid and clears waste from the metabolically active brain. Astrocytic endfeet and their dense expression of the aquaporin-4 water channels promote fluid exchange between the perivascular spaces and the neuropil. Cerebrospinal and interstitial fluids are together transported back to the vascular compartment by meningeal and cervical lymphatic vessels. Multiple lines of work show that neurological diseases in general impair glymphatic fluid transport. Insofar as the glymphatic system plays a pseudo-lymphatic role in the central nervous system, it is poised to play a role in neuroinflammation. In this review, we discuss how the association of the glymphatic system with the meningeal lymphatic vessel calls for a renewal of established concepts on the CNS as an immune-privileged site. We also discuss potential approaches to target the glymphatic system to combat neuroinflammation.

Transient but not chronic hyperglycemia accelerates ocular glymphatic transport.

Glymphatic transport is vital for the physiological homeostasis of the retina and optic nerve. Pathological alterations of ocular glymphatic fluid transport and enlarged perivascular spaces have been described in glaucomatous mice. It remains to be established how diabetic retinopathy, which impairs vision in about 50% of diabetes patients, impacts ocular glymphatic fluid transport. Here, we examined ocular glymphatic transport in chronic hyperglycemic diabetic mice as well as in healthy mice experiencing a daily transient increase in blood glucose. Mice suffering from severe diabetes for two and four months, induced by streptozotocin, exhibited no alterations in ocular glymphatic fluid transport in the optic nerve compared to age-matched, non-diabetic controls. In contrast, transient increases in blood glucose induced by repeated daily glucose injections in healthy, awake, non-diabetic mice accelerated antero- and retrograde ocular glymphatic transport. Structural analysis showed enlarged perivascular spaces in the optic nerves of glucose-treated mice, which were absent in diabetic mice. Thus, transient repeated hyperglycemic events, but not constant hyperglycemia, ultimately enlarge perivascular spaces in the murine optic nerve. These findings indicate that fluid transport in the mouse eye is vulnerable to fluctuating glycemic levels rather than constant hyperglycemia, suggesting that poor glycemic control drives glymphatic malfunction and perivascular enlargement in the optic nerve.

Long-term high-fat diet increases glymphatic activity in the hypothalamus in mice.

Obesity affects millions of people worldwide and is associated with an increased risk of cognitive decline. The glymphatic system is a brain-wide metabolic waste clearance system, dysfunction of which is linked to dementia. We herein examined glymphatic transport in mice with long-term obesity induced by a high-fat diet for 10 months. The obese mice developed hypertension and elevated heart rate, neuroinflammation and gliosis, but not apparent systemic inflammation. Surprisingly, glymphatic inflow was globally unaffected by the high-fat diet except for the hypothalamus, which displayed increased influx and elevated AQP4 vascular polarization compared to the normal weight control group. We propose that a long-term high-fat diet induced metabolic alteration of hypothalamic neurons and neuroinflammation, which in turn enhanced glymphatic clearance in the effected brain region.

A mesothelium divides the subarachnoid space into functional compartments.

The central nervous system is lined by meninges, classically known as dura, arachnoid, and pia mater. We show the existence of a fourth meningeal layer that compartmentalizes the subarachnoid space in the mouse and human brain, designated the subarachnoid lymphatic-like membrane (SLYM). SLYM is morpho- and immunophenotypically similar to the mesothelial membrane lining of peripheral organs and body cavities, and it encases blood vessels and harbors immune cells. Functionally, the close apposition of SLYM with the endothelial lining of the meningeal venous sinus permits direct exchange of small solutes between cerebrospinal fluid and venous blood, thus representing the mouse equivalent of the arachnoid granulations. The functional characterization of SLYM provides fundamental insights into brain immune barriers and fluid transport.

Liver-secreted fluorescent blood plasma markers enable chronic imaging of the microcirculation.

Studying blood microcirculation is vital for gaining insights into vascular diseases. Blood flow imaging in deep tissue is currently achieved by acute administration of fluorescent dyes in the blood plasma. This is an invasive process, and the plasma fluorescence decreases within an hour of administration. Here, we report an approach for the longitudinal study of vasculature. Using a single intraperitoneal or intravenous administration of viral vectors, we express fluorescent secretory albumin-fusion proteins in the liver to chronically label the blood circulation in mice. This approach allows for longitudinal observation of circulation from 2 weeks to over 4 months after vector administration. We demonstrate the chronic assessment of vascular functions including functional hyperemia and vascular plasticity in micro- and mesoscopic scales. This genetic plasma labeling approach represents a versatile and cost-effective method for the chronic investigation of vasculature functions across the body in health and disease animal models.

An ocular glymphatic clearance system removes ß-amyloid from the rodent eye.

Despite high metabolic activity, the retina and optic nerve head lack traditional lymphatic drainage. We here identified an ocular glymphatic clearance route for fluid and wastes via the proximal optic nerve in rodents. ß-amyloid (Aß) was cleared from the retina and vitreous via a pathway dependent on glial water channel aquaporin-4 (AQP4) and driven by the ocular-cranial pressure difference. After traversing the lamina barrier, intra-axonal Aß was cleared via the perivenous space and subsequently drained to lymphatic vessels. Light-induced pupil constriction enhanced efflux, whereas atropine or raising intracranial pressure blocked efflux. In two distinct murine models of glaucoma, Aß leaked from the eye via defects in the lamina barrier instead of directional axonal efflux. The results suggest that, in rodents, the removal of fluid and metabolites from the intraocular space occurs through a glymphatic pathway that might be impaired in glaucoma.