Genome of Rhodnius prolixus, an insect vector of Chagas disease, reveals unique adaptations to hematophagy and parasite infection.

Rhodnius prolixus not only has served as a model organism for the study of insect physiology, but also is a major vector of Chagas disease, an illness that affects approximately seven million people worldwide. We sequenced the genome of R. prolixus, generated assembled sequences covering 95% of the genome (∼ 702 Mb), including 15,456 putative protein-coding genes, and completed comprehensive genomic analyses of this obligate blood-feeding insect. Although immune-deficiency (IMD)-mediated immune responses were observed, R. prolixus putatively lacks key components of the IMD pathway, suggesting a reorganization of the canonical immune signaling network. Although both Toll and IMD effectors controlled intestinal microbiota, neither affected Trypanosoma cruzi, the causal agent of Chagas disease, implying the existence of evasion or tolerance mechanisms. R. prolixus has experienced an extensive loss of selenoprotein genes, with its repertoire reduced to only two proteins, one of which is a selenocysteine-based glutathione peroxidase, the first found in insects. The genome contained actively transcribed, horizontally transferred genes from Wolbachia sp., which showed evidence of codon use evolution toward the insect use pattern. Comparative protein analyses revealed many lineage-specific expansions and putative gene absences in R. prolixus, including tandem expansions of genes related to chemoreception, feeding, and digestion that possibly contributed to the evolution of a blood-feeding lifestyle. The genome assembly and these associated analyses provide critical information on the physiology and evolution of this important vector species and should be instrumental for the development of innovative disease control methods.

First report of Y-linked genes in the kissing bug Rhodnius prolixus.

BACKGROUND: Due to an abundance of repetitive DNA, the annotation of heterochromatic regions of the genome such as the Y chromosome is problematic. The Y chromosome is involved in key biological functions such as male-fertility and sex-determination and hence, accurate identification of its sequences is vital. The hemipteran insect Rhodnius prolixus is an important vector of Chagas disease, a trypanosomiasis affecting 6-7 million people worldwide. Here we report the identification of the first Y-linked genes of this species. RESULTS: The R. prolixus genome was recently sequenced using separate libraries for each sex and the sequences assembled only with male reads are candidates for Y linkage. We found 766 such candidates and PCR tests with the ten largest ones, confirmed Y-linkage for all of them, suggesting that "separate libraries" is a reliable method for the identification of Y-linked sequences. BLAST analyses of the 766 candidate scaffolds revealed that 568 scaffolds contained genes or part of putative genes. We tested Y-linkage for 36 candidates and found that nine of them are Y-linked (the PCR results for the other 25 genes were inconclusive or revealed autosomal/X-linkage). Hence, we describe in this study, for the first time, Y-linked genes in the R. prolixus genome: two zinc finger proteins (Znf-Y1 and Znf-Y2), one metalloproteinase (Met-Y), one aconitase/iron regulatory protein (Aco-Y) and five genes devoid of matches in any database (Rpr-Y1 to Rpr-Y5). Expression profile studies revealed that eight genes are expressed mainly in adult testis (some of which presented a weak expression in the initial developmental stages), while Aco-Y has a gut-restricted expression. CONCLUSIONS: In this study we showed that the approach used for the R. prolixus genome project (separate sequencing of male and female DNA) is key to easy and fast identification of sex-specific (e.g. Y chromosome sequences). The nine new R. prolixus Y-linked genes reported here provide unique markers for population and phylogenetic analysis and further functional studies of these genes may answer some questions about sex determination, male fertility and Y chromosome evolution in this important species.

Ovarian dual oxidase (Duox) activity is essential for insect eggshell hardening and waterproofing.

In insects, eggshell hardening involves cross-linking of chorion proteins via their tyrosine residues. This process is catalyzed by peroxidases at the expense of H2O2 and confers physical and biological protection to the developing embryo. Here, working with Rhodnius prolixus, the insect vector of Chagas disease, we show that an ovary dual oxidase (Duox), a NADPH oxidase, is the source of the H2O2 that supports dityrosine-mediated protein cross-linking and eggshell hardening. RNAi silencing of Duox activity decreased H2O2 generation followed by a failure in embryo development caused by a reduced resistance to water loss, which, in turn, caused embryos to dry out following oviposition. Phenotypes of Duox-silenced eggs were reversed by incubation in a water-saturated atmosphere, simultaneous silencing of the Duox and catalase genes, or H2O2 injection into the female hemocoel. Taken together, our results show that Duox-generated H2O2 fuels egg chorion hardening and that this process plays an essential role during eggshell waterproofing.

Blood meal-derived heme decreases ROS levels in the midgut of Aedes aegypti and allows proliferation of intestinal microbiota.

The presence of bacteria in the midgut of mosquitoes antagonizes infectious agents, such as Dengue and Plasmodium, acting as a negative factor in the vectorial competence of the mosquito. Therefore, knowledge of the molecular mechanisms involved in the control of midgut microbiota could help in the development of new tools to reduce transmission. We hypothesized that toxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by epithelial cells control bacterial growth in the midgut of Aedes aegypti, the vector of Yellow fever and Dengue viruses. We show that ROS are continuously present in the midgut of sugar-fed (SF) mosquitoes and a blood-meal immediately decreased ROS through a mechanism involving heme-mediated activation of PKC. This event occurred in parallel with an expansion of gut bacteria. Treatment of sugar-fed mosquitoes with increased concentrations of heme led to a dose dependent decrease in ROS levels and a consequent increase in midgut endogenous bacteria. In addition, gene silencing of dual oxidase (Duox) reduced ROS levels and also increased gut flora. Using a model of bacterial oral infection in the gut, we show that the absence of ROS resulted in decreased mosquito resistance to infection, increased midgut epithelial damage, transcriptional modulation of immune-related genes and mortality. As heme is a pro-oxidant molecule released in large amounts upon hemoglobin degradation, oxidative killing of bacteria in the gut would represent a burden to the insect, thereby creating an extra oxidative challenge to the mosquito. We propose that a controlled decrease in ROS levels in the midgut of Aedes aegypti is an adaptation to compensate for the ingestion of heme.

The Racial Gap in Employment and Layoffs during COVID-19 in the United States: A Visualization.

A large body of sociological research has shown that racial minorities and women experience significant disadvantages in the labor market. In this visualization, the author presents evidence from the Current Population Survey examining the effects of the coronavirus disease 2019 crisis on racial and gender inequalities in employment in the United States among prime-age workers. The author shows that the white-nonwhite gap in employment increased significantly during the post-outbreak period. Results from individual fixed-effects regression models show a strong white male advantage in the likelihood of being laid off for post-outbreak months compared with women, black men, Hispanic men, and Asian men.

Aedes aegypti Infection With Trypanosomatid Strigomonas culicis Alters Midgut Redox Metabolism and Reduces Mosquito Reproductive Fitness.

Aedes aegypti mosquitoes transmit arboviruses of important global health impact, and their intestinal microbiota can influence vector competence by stimulating the innate immune system. Midgut epithelial cells also produce toxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) by dual oxidases (DUOXs) that are essential players in insect immunity. Strigomonas culicis is a monoxenous trypanosomatid that naturally inhabits mosquitoes; it hosts an endosymbiotic bacterium that completes essential biosynthetic pathways of the parasite and influences its oxidative metabolism. Our group previously showed that S. culicis hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)-resistant (WTR) strain is more infectious to A. aegypti mosquitoes than the wild-type (WT) strain. Here, we investigated the influence of both strains on the midgut oxidative environment and the effect of infection on mosquito fitness and immunity. WT stimulated the production of superoxide by mitochondrial metabolism of midgut epithelial cells after 4 days post-infection, while WTR exacerbated H2O2 production mediated by increased DUOX activity and impairment of antioxidant system. The infection with both strains also disrupted the fecundity and fertility of the females, with a greater impact on reproductive fitness of WTR-infected mosquitoes. The presence of these parasites induced specific transcriptional modulation of immune-related genes, such as attacin and defensin A during WTR infection (11.8- and 6.4-fold, respectively) and defensin C in WT infection (7.1-fold). Thus, we propose that A. aegypti oxidative response starts in early infection time and does not affect the survival of the H2O2-resistant strain, which has a more efficient antioxidant system. Our data provide new biological aspects of A. aegypti-S. culicis relationship that can be used later in alternative vector control strategies.

The Enhanced Expression of Cruzipain-Like Molecules in the Phytoflagellate Phytomonas serpens Recovered From the Invertebrate and Plant Hosts.

Phytomonas serpens is a protozoan parasite that alternates its life cycle between two hosts: an invertebrate vector and the tomato fruit. This phytoflagellate is able to synthesize proteins displaying similarity to the cysteine peptidase named cruzipain, an important virulence factor from Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiologic agent of Chagas disease. Herein, the growth of P. serpens in complex medium (BHI) supplemented with natural tomato extract (NTE) resulted in the increased expression of cysteine peptidases, as verified by the hydrolysis of the fluorogenic substrate Z-Phe-Arg-AMC and by gelatin-SDS-PAGE. Phytoflagellates showed no changes in morphology, morphometry and viability, but the proliferation was slightly reduced when cultivated in the presence of NTE. The enhanced proteolytic activity was accompanied by a significant increase in the expression of cruzipain-like molecules, as verified by flow cytometry using anti-cruzipain antibodies. In parallel, parasites incubated under chemically defined conditions (PBS supplemented with glucose) and added of different concentration of NTE revealed an augmentation in the production of cruzipain-like molecules in a typically dose-dependent way. Similarly, P. serpens recovered from the infection of mature tomatoes showed an increase in the expression of molecules homologous to cruzipain; however, cells showed a smaller size compared to parasites grown in BHI medium. Furthermore, phytoflagellates incubated with dissected salivary glands from Oncopeltus fasciatus or recovered from the hemolymph of infected insects also showed a strong enhance in the expression of cruzipain-like molecules that is more relevant in the hemolymph. Collectively, our results showed that cysteine peptidases displaying similarities to cruzipain are more expressed during the life cycle of the phytoflagellate P. serpens both in the invertebrate and plant hosts.

"Urate and NOX5 Control Blood Digestion in the Hematophagous Insect Rhodnius prolixus".

Low levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) are now recognized as essential players in cell signaling. Here, we studied the role of two conserved enzymes involved in redox regulation that play a critical role in the control of ROS in the digestive physiology of a blood-sucking insect, the kissing bug Rhodnius prolixus. RNAi-mediated silencing of RpNOX5 and RpXDH induced early mortality in adult females after a blood meal. Recently, a role for RpNOX5 in gut motility was reported, and here, we show that midgut peristalsis is also under the control of RpXDH. Together with impaired peristalsis, silencing either genes impaired egg production and hemoglobin digestion, and decreased hemolymph urate titers. Ultrastructurally, the silencing of RpNOX5 or RpXDH affected midgut cells, changing the cells of blood-fed insects to a phenotype resembling the cells of unfed insects, suggesting that these genes work together in the control of blood digestion. Injection of either allopurinol (an XDH inhibitor) or uricase recapitulated the gene silencing effects, suggesting that urate itself is involved in the control of blood digestion. The silencing of each of these genes influenced the expression of the other gene in a complex way both in the unfed state and after a blood meal, revealing signaling crosstalk between them that influences redox metabolism and nitrogen excretion and plays a central role in the control of digestive physiology.

The motherhood penalty and The fatherhood premium in employment during covid-19: evidence from The united states.

In this paper, we present evidence from the Current Population Survey examining the effects of the COVID-19 crisis on parental status and gender inequalities in employment in the United States. We show that the drop in the employment rate in post-outbreak months was largely driven by mass layoffs and not by workers quitting their jobs. Results from fixed-effects regression models show a strong fatherhood premium in the likelihood of being laid off for post-outbreak months compared to mothers, men without children, and women without children. We also found that the "fatherhood premium" was higher among lower-educated and mid-educated workers. These findings show that gaps in layoff rates exacerbated pre-existing forms of parental status and gender inequality in employment. Possible mechanisms are discussed, but more work is needed to explain why employers were less likely to lay off fathers following the outbreak, and the short- and long-term consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic in reinforcing parental status and gender inequality in employment in the United States.

Gene expression profiling of Trypanosoma cruzi in the presence of heme points to glycosomal metabolic adaptation of epimastigotes inside the vector.

Chagas disease, also known as American trypanosomiasis, is a potentially life-threatening illness caused by the protozoan parasite, Trypanosoma cruzi, and is transmitted by triatomine insects during its blood meal. Proliferative epimastigotes forms thrive inside the insects in the presence of heme (iron protoporphyrin IX), an abundant product of blood digestion, however little is known about the metabolic outcome of this signaling molecule in the parasite. Trypanosomatids exhibit unusual gene transcription employing a polycistronic transcription mechanism through trans-splicing that regulates its life cycle. Using the Deep Seq transcriptome sequencing we characterized the heme induced transcriptome of epimastigotes and determined that most of the upregulated genes were related to glucose metabolism inside the glycosomes. These results were supported by the upregulation of glycosomal isoforms of PEPCK and fumarate reductase of heme-treated parasites, implying that the fermentation process was favored. Moreover, the downregulation of mitochondrial gene enzymes in the presence of heme also supported the hypothesis that heme shifts the parasite glycosomal glucose metabolism towards aerobic fermentation. These results are examples of the environmental metabolic plasticity inside the vector supporting ATP production, promoting epimastigotes proliferation and survival.

Natural infection by the protozoan Leptomonas wallacei impacts the morphology, physiology, reproduction, and lifespan of the insect Oncopeltus fasciatus.

Trypanosomatids are protozoan parasites that infect thousands of globally dispersed hosts, potentially affecting their physiology. Several species of trypanosomatids are commonly found in phytophagous insects. Leptomonas wallacei is a gut-restricted insect trypanosomatid only retrieved from Oncopeltus fasciatus. The insects get infected by coprophagy and transovum transmission of L. wallacei cysts. The main goal of the present study was to investigate the effects of a natural infection by L. wallacei on the hemipteran insect O. fasciatus, by comparing infected and uninfected individuals in a controlled environment. The L. wallacei-infected individuals showed reduced lifespan and morphological alterations. Also, we demonstrated a higher infection burden in females than in males. The infection caused by L. wallacei reduced host reproductive fitness by negatively impacting egg load, oviposition, and eclosion, and promoting an increase in egg reabsorption. Moreover, we associated the egg reabsorption observed in infected females, with a decrease in the intersex gene expression. Finally, we suggest alterations in population dynamics induced by L. wallacei infection using a mathematical model. Collectively, our findings demonstrated that L. wallacei infection negatively affected the physiology of O. fasciatus, which suggests that L. wallacei potentially has a vast ecological impact on host population growth.

Cysteine peptidases in the tomato trypanosomatid Phytomonas serpens: influence of growth conditions, similarities with cruzipain and secretion to the extracellular environment.

We have characterized the cysteine peptidase production by Phytomonas serpens, a tomato trypanosomatid. The parasites were cultivated in four distinct media, since growth conditions could modulate the synthesis of bioactive molecules. The proteolytic profile has not changed qualitatively regardless the media, showing two peptidases of 38 and 40kDa; however, few quantitative changes were observed including a drastic reduction (around 70%) on the 40 and 38kDa peptidase activities when parasites were grown in yeast extract and liver infusion trypticase medium, respectively, in comparison with parasites cultured in Warren medium. The time-span of growth did not significantly alter the protein and peptidase expression. The proteolytic activities were blocked by classical cysteine peptidase inhibitors (E-64, leupeptin, and cystatin), being more active at pH 5.0 and showing complete dependence to reducing agents (dithiothreitol and l-cysteine) for full activity. The cysteine peptidases were able to hydrolyze several proteinaceous substrates, including salivary gland proteins from Oncopeltus fasciatus, suggesting broad substrate utilization. By means of agglutination, fluorescence microscopy, flow cytometry and Western blotting analyses we showed that both cysteine peptidases produced by P. serpens share common epitopes with cruzipain, the major cysteine peptidase of Trypanosoma cruzi. Moreover, our data suggest that the 40kDa cysteine peptidase was located at the P. serpens cell surface, attached to membrane domains via a glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor. The 40kDa peptidase was also detected in the cell-free culture supernatant, in an active form, which suggests secretion of this peptidase to the extracellular environment.

Evaluating the effects of anticoagulants on Rhodnius prolixus artificial blood feeding.

Blood-sucking insects are responsible for the transmission of several important disease-causing organisms such as viruses, bacteria, and protozoans. The hematophagous hemipteran Rhodnius prolixus is one of the most important vectors of Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiological agent of Chagas disease. Due to the medical importance of this insect, it has been used as a study model in physiology and biochemistry since the 1930s. Artificial feeding has been recognized as a feasible and a more ethical alternative method of feeding these hematophagous insects. To prevent clotting after blood collection defibrination or treatment with anticoagulants are necessary. Although anticoagulants have been routinely used for stabilizing the collected blood, there is a gap in demonstration of the effects of using anticoagulants on the feeding and development of the hematophagous insect Rhodnius prolixus. In this study, we compared the survival rate, molting efficiency, fertility, and infection development between insects that were fed on blood containing three different anticoagulants (citrate, EDTA, and heparin). We observed that fifth instar nymphs that were fed on blood containing EDTA and citrate could not perform digestion properly, which resulted in molting inefficiency. Adult insects that were fed on EDTA-containing blood laid lower number of eggs, and also had a diminished egg hatch percentage. When we delivered T. cruzi parasites in blood containing citrate or EDTA to the insects, a lower number of parasites and metacyclic trypomastigotes was observed in the intestine compared to the group fed on heparin-containing blood. Since heparin could potentially inhibit DNA polymerase activity in DNA samples extracted from the intestine, we analyzed different heparin concentrations to determine which one is the best for use as an anticoagulant. Concentrations ranging between 2.5 and 5 U/mL were able to inhibit coagulation without severely impairing DNA polymerase activity, thus indicating that this should be considered as the range of use for feeding experiments. Our results suggest that among the three anticoagulants tested, heparin can be recommended as the anticoagulant of choice for R. prolixus feeding experiments.

An insight into the sialotranscriptome of the seed-feeding bug, Oncopeltus fasciatus.

The salivary transcriptome of the seed-feeding hemipteran, Oncopeltus fasciatus (milkweed bug), is described following assembly of 1025 expressed sequence tags (ESTs) into 305 clusters of related sequences. Inspection of these sequences reveals abundance of low complexity, putative secreted products rich in the amino acids (aa) glycine, serine or threonine, which might function as silk or mucins and assist food canal lubrication and sealing of the feeding site around the mouthparts. Several protease inhibitors were found, including abundant expression of cystatin transcripts that may inhibit cysteine proteases common in seeds that might injure the insect or induce plant apoptosis. Serine proteases and lipases are described that might assist digestion and liquefaction of seed proteins and oils. Finally, several novel putative proteins are described with no known function that might affect plant physiology or act as antimicrobials.

Peptidases and gp63-like proteins in Herpetomonas megaseliae: possible involvement in the adhesion to the invertebrate host.

The cell-associated and extracellular peptidases of Herpetomonas megaseliae grown in brain-heart infusion and in modified Roitman's complex media were analyzed by measuring peptidase activity on gelatin, casein and hemoglobin in zymograms. Casein was the best proteinaceous substrate for the peptidase detection on both growth conditions. However, no proteolytic activity was detected when hemoglobin was used. Our results showed that cellular cysteine peptidase (115-100, 40 and 35 kDa) and metallopeptidase (70 and 60 kDa) activities were detected on both media in casein and gelatin zymograms. Additionally, the use of casein in the gel revealed a distinct acidic metallopeptidase of 50 kDa when the parasite was cultured in the modified Roitman's complex medium. Irrespective of the culture medium composition, H. megaseliae released metallopeptidases exclusively in the extracellular environment. The presence of gp63-like molecules on the H. megaseliae surface was shown by flow cytometry using anti-gp63 antibody raised against recombinant gp63 from Leishmania mexicana. The pre-treatment of parasites with phospholipase C reduced the number of gp63-positive cells, suggesting that these molecules were glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored to the surface. Additionally, the supernatant obtained from phospholipase C-treated cells and probed with anti-cross-reacting determinant confirmed that at least a 52 kDa gp63-like molecule is glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored. Furthermore, we assessed a possible function for the gp63-like molecules in H. megaseliae on the interaction with explanted guts of its original host, Megaselia scalaris, and with an experimental model employing Aedes aegypti. Parasites pre-treated with either anti-gp63 antibody or phospholipase C showed a significant reduction in the adhesion to M. scalaris and A. aegypti guts. Similarly, the pre-treatment of the explanted guts with purified gp63 diminished the interaction process. Collectively, these results corroborate the ubiquitous existence of gp63 homologues in insect trypanosomatids and the potential adhesion of these molecules to invertebrate host tissues.

Phytomonas serpens: cysteine peptidase inhibitors interfere with growth, ultrastructure and host adhesion.

In this study, we report the ultrastructural and growth alterations caused by cysteine peptidase inhibitors on the plant trypanosomatid Phytomonas serpens. We showed that the cysteine peptidase inhibitors at 10 microM were able to arrest cellular growth as well as promote alterations in the cell morphology, including the parasites becoming short and round. Additionally, iodoacetamide induced ultrastructural alterations, such as disintegration of cytoplasmic organelles, swelling of the nucleus and kinetoplast-mitochondrion complex, which culminated in parasite death. Leupeptin and antipain induced the appearance of microvillar extensions and blebs on the cytoplasmic membrane, resembling a shedding process. A 40 kDa cysteine peptidase was detected in hydrophobic and hydrophilic phases of P. serpens cells after Triton X-114 extraction. Additionally, we have shown through immunoblotting that anti-cruzipain polyclonal antibodies recognised two major polypeptides in P. serpens, including a 40 kDa component. Flow cytometry analysis confirmed that this cruzipain-like protein has a location on the cell surface. Ultrastructural immunocytochemical analysis demonstrated the presence of the cruzipain-like protein on the surface and in small membrane fragments released from leupeptin-treated parasites. Furthermore, the involvement of cysteine peptidases of P. serpens in the interaction with explanted salivary glands of the phytophagous insect Oncopeltus fasciatus was also investigated. When P. serpens cells were pre-treated with either cysteine peptidase inhibitors or anti-cruzipain antibody, a significant reduction of the interaction process was observed. Collectively, these results suggest that cysteine peptidases participate in several biological processes in P. serpens including cell growth and interaction with the invertebrate vector.

Tyrosine Detoxification Is an Essential Trait in the Life History of Blood-Feeding Arthropods.

Blood-feeding arthropods are vectors of infectious diseases such as dengue, Zika, Chagas disease, and malaria [1], and vector control is essential to limiting disease spread. Because these arthropods ingest very large amounts of blood, a protein-rich meal, huge amounts of amino acids are produced during digestion. Previous work on Rhodnius prolixus, a vector of Chagas disease, showed that, among all amino acids, only tyrosine degradation enzymes were overexpressed in the midgut compared to other tissues [2]. Here we demonstrate that tyrosine detoxification is an essential trait in the life history of blood-sucking arthropods. We found that silencing Rhodnius tyrosine aminotransferase (TAT) and 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase (HPPD), the first two enzymes of the phenylalanine/tyrosine degradation pathway, caused the death of insects after a blood meal. This was confirmed by using the HPPD inhibitor mesotrione, which selectively killed hematophagous arthropods but did not affect non-hematophagous insects. In addition, mosquitoes and kissing bugs died after feeding on mice that had previously received a therapeutic effective oral dose (1 mg/kg) of nitisinone, another HPPD inhibitor used in humans for the treatment of tyrosinemia type I [3]. These findings indicate that HPPD (and TAT) can be a target for the selective control of blood-sucking disease vector populations. Because HPPD inhibitors are extensively used as herbicides and in medicine, these compounds may provide an alternative less toxic to humans and more environmentally friendly than the conventional neurotoxic insecticides that are currently used, with the ability to affect only hematophagous arthropods.

Amino acids trigger down-regulation of superoxide via TORC pathway in the midgut of Rhodnius prolixus.

Sensing incoming nutrients is an important and critical event for intestinal cells to sustain life of the whole organism. The TORC is a major protein complex involved in monitoring the nutritional status and is activated by elevated amino acid concentrations. An important feature of haematophagy is that huge amounts of blood are ingested in a single meal, which results in the release of large quantities of amino acids, together with the haemoglobin prosthetic group, haem, which decomposes hydroperoxides and propagates oxygen-derived free radicals. Our previous studies demonstrated that reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels were diminished in the mitochondria and midgut of the Dengue fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti, immediately after a blood meal. We proposed that this mechanism serves to avoid oxidative damage that would otherwise be induced by haem following a blood meal. Studies also performed in mosquitoes have shown that blood or amino acids controls protein synthesis through TORC activation. It was already proposed, in different models, a link between ROS and TOR, however, little is known about TOR signalling in insect midgut nor about the involvement of ROS in this pathway. Here, we studied the effect of a blood meal on ROS production in the midgut of Rhodnius prolixus We observed that blood meal amino acids decreased ROS levels in the R. prolixus midgut immediately after feeding, via lowering mitochondrial superoxide production and involving the amino acid-sensing TORC pathway.

Identification of a selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidase in the blood-sucking insect Rhodnius prolixus.

The selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidase (SeGPx) is a well-studied enzyme that detoxifies organic and hydrogen peroxides and provides cells or extracellular fluids with a key antioxidant function. The presence of a SeGPx has not been unequivocally demonstrated in insects. In the present work, we identified the gene and studied the function of a Rhodnius prolixus SeGPx (RpSeGPx). The RpSeGPx mRNA presents the UGA codon that encodes the active site selenocysteine (Sec) and a corresponding Sec insertion sequence (SECIS) in the 3' UTR region. The encoded protein includes a signal peptide, which is consistent with the high levels of GPx enzymatic activity in the insect's hemolymph, and clusters phylogenetically with the extracellular mammalian GPx03. This result contrasts with all other known insect GPxs, which use a cysteine residue instead of Sec and cluster with the mammalian phospholipid hydroperoxide GPx04. RpSeGPx is widely expressed in insect organs, with higher expression levels in the fat body. RNA interference (RNAi) was used to reduce RpSeGPx gene expression and GPx activity in the hemolymph. Adult females were apparently unaffected by RpSeGPx RNAi, whereas first instar nymphs showed a three-day delay in ecdysis. Silencing of RpSeGPx did not alter the gene expression of the antioxidant enzymes catalase, xanthine dehydrogenase and a cysteine-GPx, but it reduced the levels of the dual oxidase and NADPH oxidase 5 transcripts that encode for enzymes releasing extracellular hydrogen peroxide/superoxide. Collectively, our data suggest that RpSeGPx functions in the regulation of extracellular (hemolymph) redox homeostasis of R. prolixus.

An insight into the transcriptome of the digestive tract of the bloodsucking bug, Rhodnius prolixus.

The bloodsucking hemipteran Rhodnius prolixus is a vector of Chagas' disease, which affects 7-8 million people today in Latin America. In contrast to other hematophagous insects, the triatomine gut is compartmentalized into three segments that perform different functions during blood digestion. Here we report analysis of transcriptomes for each of the segments using pyrosequencing technology. Comparison of transcript frequency in digestive libraries with a whole-body library was used to evaluate expression levels. All classes of digestive enzymes were highly expressed, with a predominance of cysteine and aspartic proteinases, the latter showing a significant expansion through gene duplication. Although no protein digestion is known to occur in the anterior midgut (AM), protease transcripts were found, suggesting secretion as pro-enzymes, being possibly activated in the posterior midgut (PM). As expected, genes related to cytoskeleton, protein synthesis apparatus, protein traffic, and secretion were abundantly transcribed. Despite the absence of a chitinous peritrophic membrane in hemipterans - which have instead a lipidic perimicrovillar membrane lining over midgut epithelia - several gut-specific peritrophin transcripts were found, suggesting that these proteins perform functions other than being a structural component of the peritrophic membrane. Among immunity-related transcripts, while lysozymes and lectins were the most highly expressed, several genes belonging to the Toll pathway - found at low levels in the gut of most insects - were identified, contrasting with a low abundance of transcripts from IMD and STAT pathways. Analysis of transcripts related to lipid metabolism indicates that lipids play multiple roles, being a major energy source, a substrate for perimicrovillar membrane formation, and a source for hydrocarbons possibly to produce the wax layer of the hindgut. Transcripts related to amino acid metabolism showed an unanticipated priority for degradation of tyrosine, phenylalanine, and tryptophan. Analysis of transcripts related to signaling pathways suggested a role for MAP kinases, GTPases, and LKBP1/AMP kinases related to control of cell shape and polarity, possibly in connection with regulation of cell survival, response of pathogens and nutrients. Together, our findings present a new view of the triatomine digestive apparatus and will help us understand trypanosome interaction and allow insights into hemipteran metabolic adaptations to a blood-based diet.