Insurance-based Disparities in Outcomes and Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation Utilization for Hospitalized COVID-19 Patients.

BACKGROUND: The objective of this study was to examine insurance-based disparities in mortality, nonhome discharges, and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation utilization in patients hospitalized with COVID-19. METHODS: Using a national database of U.S. academic medical centers and their affiliated hospitals, the risk-adjusted association between mortality, nonhome discharge, and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation utilization and (1) the type of insurance coverage (private insurance, Medicare, dual enrollment in Medicare and Medicaid, and no insurance) and (2) the weekly hospital COVID-19 burden (0 to 5.0%; 5.1 to 10%, 10.1 to 20%, 20.1 to 30%, and 30.1% and greater) was evaluated. Modeling was expanded to include an interaction between payer status and the weekly hospital COVID-19 burden to examine whether the lack of private insurance was associated with increases in disparities as the COVID-19 burden increased. RESULTS: Among 760,846 patients hospitalized with COVID-19, 214,992 had private insurance, 318,624 had Medicare, 96,192 were dually enrolled in Medicare and Medicaid, 107,548 had Medicaid, and 23,560 had no insurance. Overall, 76,250 died, 211,702 had nonhome discharges, 75,703 were mechanically ventilated, and 2,642 underwent extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. The adjusted odds of death were higher in patients with Medicare (adjusted odds ratio, 1.28 [95% CI, 1.21 to 1.35]; P < 0.0005), dually enrolled (adjusted odds ratio, 1.39 [95% CI, 1.30 to 1.50]; P < 0.0005), Medicaid (adjusted odds ratio, 1.28 [95% CI, 1.20 to 1.36]; P < 0.0005), and no insurance (adjusted odds ratio, 1.43 [95% CI, 1.26 to 1.62]; P < 0.0005) compared to patients with private insurance. Patients with Medicare (adjusted odds ratio, 0.47; [95% CI, 0.39 to 0.58]; P < 0.0005), dually enrolled (adjusted odds ratio, 0.32 [95% CI, 0.24 to 0.43]; P < 0.0005), Medicaid (adjusted odds ratio, 0.70 [95% CI, 0.62 to 0.79]; P < 0.0005), and no insurance (adjusted odds ratio, 0.40 [95% CI, 0.29 to 0.56]; P < 0.001) were less likely to be placed on extracorporeal membrane oxygenation than patients with private insurance. Mortality, nonhome discharges, and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation utilization did not change significantly more in patients with private insurance compared to patients without private insurance as the COVID-19 burden increased. CONCLUSIONS: Among patients with COVID-19, insurance-based disparities in mortality, nonhome discharges, and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation utilization were substantial, but these disparities did not increase as the hospital COVID-19 burden increased.

Buprenorphine Treatment Episodes During the First Year of COVID: a Retrospective Examination of Treatment Initiation and Retention.

BACKGROUND: During the COVID pandemic, overall buprenorphine treatment appeared to remain relatively stable, despite some studies suggesting a decrease in patients starting buprenorphine. There is a paucity of empirical information regarding patterns of buprenorphine treatment during the pandemic. OBJECTIVE: To better understand the patterns of buprenorphine episodes during the pandemic and how those patterns compared to pre-pandemic patterns. DESIGN: Pharmacy claims representing approximately 92% of all prescriptions filled at retail pharmacies in all 50 US states and the District of Columbia. PARTICIPANTS: Individuals filling buprenorphine prescriptions indicated for treatment of opioid use disorder. MAIN MEASURES: The number of active, starting, and ending buprenorphine treatment episodes March 13 to December 1, 2020, and the expected number of such episodes in 2020 based on the growth in treatment episodes from March 13 to December 1, 2019. KEY RESULTS: The observed number of active buprenorphine episodes in December 2020 was comparable to the expected number, but new treatment episodes starting between March 13 and December 1, 2020, were 17.2% fewer than expected based on the 2019 experience. Similarly, the number of episodes that ended between March 13 and December 1, 2020, was 16.0% fewer than expected. Decreases from expected episode starts and ends occurred throughout the period but were greatest in the 2 months after the declaration of the public health emergency. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Beneath the apparent stability of buprenorphine patient numbers during the pandemic, the flow of individuals receiving buprenorphine treatment changed substantially. Our findings shed light on how policy changes meant to support buprenorphine prescribing influenced prescribing dynamics during that period, suggesting that while policy efforts may have been successful in maintaining existing patients in treatment, that success did not extend to individuals not yet in treatment.

Medical marijuana access and prolonged opioid use among adolescents and young adults.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Laws liberalizing access to medical marijuana are associated with reduced opioid analgesic use among adults, but little is known about the impact of such policies on adolescents and young adults. METHODS: This retrospective cohort study used 2005 to 2014 claims from MarketScan® Commercial database, which covers all 50 states and Washington D.C. The sample included 195,204 adolescent and young adult patients (aged 12-25) who underwent one of 13 surgical procedures. RESULTS: Of the 195,204 patients, 4.8% had prolonged opioid use. Several factors were associated with a higher likelihood of prolonged opioid use, including being female (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 1.27; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.21-1.33), longer hospital stay (aOR, 1.04; 95% CI, 1.02-1.06), greater days of index opioid supply (8-14 days: aOR, 1.39, 95% CI, 1.33-1.45; greater than 14 days: aOR, 2.42, 95% CI, 2.26-2.59), rural residence (aOR, 1.07; 95% CI, 1.01-1.14), and cholecystectomy (aOR, 1.16; 95% CI, 1.08-1.25). There was not a significant association of medical marijuana dispensary laws on prolonged opioid use (aOR, 0.98; 95% CI, 0.81-1.18). CONCLUSIONS AND SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE: Medical marijuana has been suggested as a substitute for opioids, but our results focusing on adolescents and young adults provide new evidence that this particularly vulnerable population does not exhibit reductions in prolonged use of opioids after surgery when they have legal access to medical marijuana. These findings are the first to demonstrate potentially important age differences in sustained use of opioids, and point to the need for prescriber oversight and management with this vulnerable population.

National Trends in Buprenorphine Treatment for Opioid Use Disorder From 2007 to 2018.

BACKGROUND: Buprenorphine is a key medication to treat opioid use disorder (OUD). Since its approval in 2002, buprenorphine access has grown markedly, spurred by major federal and state policy changes. This study characterizes buprenorphine treatment episodes during 2007 to 2018 with respect to payer, provider specialty, and patient demographics. METHODS: In this observational cohort study, IQVIA Real World pharmacy claims data were used to characterize trends in buprenorphine treatment episodes across four time periods: 2007-2009, 2010-2012, 2013-2015, and 2016-2018. RESULTS: In total, we identified more than 4.1 million buprenorphine treatment episodes among 2 540 710 unique individuals. The number of episodes doubled from 652 994 in 2007-2009 to 1 331 980 in 2016-2018. Our findings indicate that the payer landscape changed dramatically, with the most pronounced growth observed for Medicaid (increased from 17% of episodes in 2007-2009 to 37% of episodes in 2016-2018), accompanied by relative declines for both commercial insurance (declined from 35 to 21%) and self-pay (declined from 27 to 11%). Adult primary care providers (PCPs) were the dominant prescribers throughout the study period. The number of episodes among adults older than 55 increased more than 3-fold from 2007-2009 to 2016-2018. In contrast, youth under age 18 experienced an absolute decline in buprenorphine treatment episodes. Buprenorphine episodes increased in length from 2007-2018, particularly among adults over age 45. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings demonstrate that the U.S. experienced clear growth in buprenorphine treatment-particularly for older adults and Medicaid beneficiaries-reflecting some key health policy and implementation success stories. Yet, since the prevalence of OUD and fatal overdose rate have also approximately doubled during this period, the observed growth in buprenorphine treatment did not demonstrably impact the pronounced treatment gap. To date, only a minority of individuals with OUD currently receive treatment, indicating continued need for systemic efforts to equitably improve treatment uptake.

Spatial and temporal trends in the diagnosis of opioid-related problems in commercially-insured adolescents and young adults.

Little is known about the extent to which the prevalence of opioid-related problems (ORPs) varies among U.S. adolescents and young adults across geographic regions and over time, information that can help to guide policies that aim to curb the opioid epidemic. A retrospective, cross-sectional design was used to analyze longitudinal claims data from privately insured individuals aged 12-64 years who had an outpatient or inpatient diagnosis of an ORP in the years 2005-2018. The prevalence of opioid-related problem diagnoses (per 10,000) varied considerably across census divisions, both over time and between age groups. Knowledge of the origin of and variation in diagnosed opioid-related problems in terms of age group and census division is important so that interventions and policies can be more targeted and effective.

Sociodemographic differences in quality of treatment to Medicaid enrollees receiving buprenorphine.

Background: Buprenorphine is a key medication to treat opioid use disorder, but little is known about how treatment quality varies across sociodemographic groups. Objective: We examined measures of treatment quality and explored variation by sociodemographic factors. Methods: We used Medicaid MAX data from 50 states from 2006 to 2014 to identify buprenorphine treatment episodes (N = 317,494). We used multivariable logistic regression to examine the quality of buprenorphine treatment along four dimensions: (1) sufficient duration, (2) effective dosage, and concurrent prescribing of (3) opioid analgesics and (4) benzodiazepines. We explored how quality varied by race/ethnicity, age, sex, and urbanicity. Results: In adjusted models, compared to non-Hispanic White individuals, non-Hispanic Black and Hispanic individuals had lower odds of receiving effective dosage (aORs = 0.79 and 0.89, respectively) and sufficient duration (aORs = 0.64 and 0.71, respectively), and lower odds of concurrent prescribing of opioid analgesics (aORs = 0.86 and 0.85, respectively) and benzodiazepines (aORs = 0.51 and 0.59, respectively). Older individuals had higher odds of sufficient duration (aORs from 1.21-1.33), but also had higher odds of concurrent opioid analgesics prescribing (aORs from 1.29-1.56) and benzodiazepines (aORs from 1.44-1.99). Females had higher odds of sufficient duration (aOR = 1.12), but lower odds of effective dosage (aOR = 0.77) and higher odds of concurrent prescribing of opioid analgesics (aOR = 1.25) and benzodiazepines (aOR = 1.16). Compared to individuals living in metropolitan areas, individuals living in non-metropolitan areas had higher odds of sufficient duration (aORs = 1.11 and 1.24) and effective dosage (aORs = 1.06 and 1.33), and lower odds of concurrent prescribing (aORs from 0.81-0.98). Conclusions: Black and Hispanic individuals were less likely to receive effective buprenorphine dosage and sufficient duration. Quality results were mixed for older and female individuals; although these individuals were more likely to receive treatment of sufficient duration, they were also more likely to be concurrently prescribed potentially contraindicated medications, and females were less likely to receive effective dosage. Findings raise concerns about adequacy of care for minority and other at-risk populations.

The Unequal Burden of COVID-19 Deaths in Counties With High Proportions of Black and Hispanic Residents.

BACKGROUND: Understanding the current burden of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) deaths in vulnerable populations will help inform efforts by policymakers to address disparities in COVID-19 outcomes. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to examine the association between COVID-19 deaths and the county-level proportions of non-Hispanic Black and Hispanic residents. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A retrospective study using COVID-19 mortality data from USA Facts linked to data from the US Census Bureau, the Health Resources & Services Administration Area Health Resources file, and the US Census Bureau. Negative binomial regression was used to estimate the association between the total county COVID-19 deaths during consecutive 30-day intervals and the proportion of non-Hispanic Blacks and Hispanic residents after adjusting for resident demographics, comorbidity burden, rurality, social determinants of health, and health care resources. RESULTS: In April, counties (n=179) with >40% Blacks had 6-fold higher death rates than counties (n=1521) with <2% Blacks [incident rate ratio (IRR)=6.58, 95% confidence interval (CI): 3.29-13.2, P<0.001]. These counties had higher death rates until October, but were no different than referent counties in November. In April, death rates in counties with >40% Hispanic residents were similar to death rates in counties with <2% Hispanic residents. Death rates in these counties peaked in August (IRR=3.14, 95% CI: 1.69-5.82, P<0.001) but were also no different than referent counties in November. These effects were robust after adjusting for county-level characteristics. Before August, death rates differed little by insurance status, but since then, counties with >15% uninsurance rates had up to 2-fold higher mortality rates (IRR=1.97, 95% CI: 1.19-3.27, P<0.001) than counties with <5% uninsurance rates. CONCLUSION: Counties with high concentrations of non-Hispanic Blacks were disproportionately affected by COVID-19 throughout most of the pandemic, but other social determinants of health such as health insurance are now playing a more prominent role than race and ethnicity.

Outcomes Associated With State Policies Enabling Provision of Oral Health Services in Medical Offices Among Medicaid-enrolled Children.

BACKGROUND: To increase receipt of preventive oral health services (POHS), all state Medicaid programs have enacted policies to encourage nondental providers to deliver POHS in medical offices. This study examined if these Medicaid policies improved oral health, as measured by reductions in dental visits with treatment and preventable emergency department (ED) visits for nontraumatic dental conditions (NTDC). METHODS: Using data on children aged 6 months to up to 6 years from 38 state Medicaid programs during 2006-2014, we used a generalized difference-in-differences estimation approach to examine the probability of a child having, in a year, any dental visits with caries-related treatment and any ED visits for NTDC, conditional on length of policy enactment. Models included additional child-level and county-level characteristics, state and year fixed effects, probability weights, and clustered standard errors. RESULTS: Among a weighted sample of 45,107,240 child/year observations, 11.7% had any dental visits with treatment and 0.2% had any ED visits for NTDC annually. Children in states with and without medical POHS policies had similar odds of having any dental visits with treatment, regardless of length of policy enactment. Children in states with medical POHS policies enacted for one or more years had significantly greater odds of having any ED visits for NTDC (P<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: State policies making POHS available in medical offices did not affect rates of dental visits with caries-related treatment, but were associated with increased rates of potentially avoidable ED visits for NTDC. Findings suggest that many young Medicaid-enrollees lack access to dentists.

Advanced cognitive impairment among older nursing home residents.

BACKGROUND: Though work has been done studying nursing home (NH) residents with either advanced Alzheimer's disease (AD) or Alzheimer's disease related dementia (ADRD), none have distinguished between them; even though their clinical features affecting survival are different. In this study, we compared mortality risk factors and survival between NH residents with advanced AD and those with advanced ADRD. METHODS: This is a retrospective observational study, in which we examined a sample of 34,493 U.S. NH residents aged 65 and over in the Minimum Data Set (2011-2013). Incident assessment of advanced disease was defined as the first MDS assessment with severe cognitive impairment (Cognitive Functional Score equals to 4) and diagnoses of AD or ADRD. Demographics, functional limitations, and comorbidities were evaluated as mortality risk factors using Cox models. Survival was characterized with Kaplan-Maier functions. RESULTS: Of those with advanced cognitive impairment, 35 % had AD and 65 % ADRD. At the incident assessment of advanced disease, those with AD had better health compared to those with ADRD. Mortality risk factors were similar between groups (shortness of breath, difficulties eating, substantial weight-loss, diabetes mellitus, heart failure, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and pneumonia; all p < 0.01). However, stroke and difficulty with transfer (for women) were significant mortality risk factors only for those with advanced AD. Urinary tract infection, and hypertension (for women) only were mortality risk factors for those with advanced ADRD. Median survival was significantly shorter for the advanced ADRD group (194 days) compared to the advanced AD group (300 days). CONCLUSIONS: There were distinct mortality and survival patterns of NH residents with advanced AD and ADRD. This may help with care planning decisions regarding therapeutic and palliative care.

Trends in personal and family member opioid prescriptions prior to a diagnosis of an opioid-related problem among adolescents and young adults.

Background: Efforts to reduce the risk of opioid misuse are often focused on reducing unnecessary prescriptions for opioid medications or reducing the dose prescribed; however, not all misuse occurs in individuals with a personal prescription. This study examined trends in the proportion of adolescents and young adults (AYAs) who had an opioid-related problem (ORP) and who also had a personal opioid prescription drug claim or had a family member with an opioid prescription drug claim prior to the ORP diagnosis. Methods: A retrospective cohort design was used to analyze longitudinal claims data. We identified individuals aged 12 to 25 years who had a newly diagnosed ORP in the years 2006 to 2014. Trends over time in personal or family opioid prescription drug claims within 1 year prior to ORP diagnosis were examined. Results: We identified 53,560 AYAs with an ORP diagnosis. Over the entire study period, 40% of AYAs with an ORP diagnosis had a personal opioid prescription in the year prior to diagnosis, and 48% had a family member with an opioid prescription in the prior year. While the proportion of AYAs with a family prescription remained constant, the proportion with a personal prescription fell from 77.1% in 2006 to 27.3% in 2014. Conclusions: The number of AYAs with an ORP increased over time, yet the proportion with a personal opioid prescription claim prior to their diagnosis decreased over time. This suggests that providers are paying greater attention to prescribing opioids to AYAs directly, although prescriptions to family members may still remain a point of access.

Heterogeneity in Prescription Opioid Pain Reliever Misuse Across Age Groups: 2015-2017 National Survey on Drug Use and Health.

BACKGROUND: Prescription opioid misuse among older adults has received little attention to date. Potential age variation in characteristics of and motivations for prescription opioid misuse has not been fully characterized yet has important implications for preventing diversion and misuse. OBJECTIVE: To examine (1) age-specific patterns of source of misused prescription opioid pain relievers and motives for misuse and (2) age-specific and source-specific associations with opioid use disorder (OUD), heroin use, benzodiazepine misuse, and OUD treatment utilization. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study using 3 waves (2015-2017) of the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (68% average response rate) PARTICIPANTS: Respondents aged 12 and older with past-year prescription opioid pain reliever misuse (n = 8228) MAIN MEASURES: Source for the most-recently misused prescription pain reliever (categorized as medical, social, or illicit/other), motive for last episode of misuse, OUD, heroin use, benzodiazepine misuse, and OUD treatment. KEY RESULTS: Adults 50 and older comprised approximately 25% of all individuals reporting past-year prescription opioid misuse. A social source was most common for individuals under age 50 while a medical source was most common for individuals 50 and older. The most commonly reported motive for misuse was to "relieve physical pain"; the frequency of this response increased across age groups (47% aged 12-17 to 87% aged 65+). Among adults age 50 and older with prescription opioid misuse, 17% met criteria for OUD, 15% reported past-year benzodiazepine misuse, and 3% reported past-year heroin use. CONCLUSIONS: Physicians continue to be a direct source of prescription opioids for misuse, particularly for older adults. Ongoing clinical initiatives regarding optimal opioid prescribing practices are needed in addition to effective non-opioid strategies for pain management. Clinical initiatives should also include screening adult and adolescent patients for non-medical use of prescription opioids as well as improving access to OUD treatment for individuals of all ages.

Measuring Childbirth Outcomes Using Administrative and Birth Certificate Data.

BACKGROUND: The number of pregnancy-related deaths and severe maternal complications continues to rise in the United States, and the quality of obstetrical care across U.S. hospitals is uneven. Providing hospitals with performance feedback may help reduce the rates of severe complications in mothers and their newborns. The aim of this study was to develop a risk-adjusted composite measure of severe maternal morbidity and severe newborn morbidity based on administrative and birth certificate data. METHODS: This study was conducted using linked administrative data and birth certificate data from California. Hierarchical logistic regression prediction models for severe maternal morbidity and severe newborn morbidity were developed using 2011 data and validated using 2012 data. The composite metric was calculated using the geometric mean of the risk-standardized rates of severe maternal morbidity and severe newborn morbidity. RESULTS: The study was based on 883,121 obstetric deliveries in 2011 and 2012. The rates of severe maternal morbidity and severe newborn morbidity were 1.53% and 3.67%, respectively. Both the severe maternal morbidity model and the severe newborn models exhibited acceptable levels of discrimination and calibration. Hospital risk-adjusted rates of severe maternal morbidity were poorly correlated with hospital rates of severe newborn morbidity (intraclass correlation coefficient, 0.016). Hospital rankings based on the composite measure exhibited moderate levels of agreement with hospital rankings based either on the maternal measure or the newborn measure (κ statistic 0.49 and 0.60, respectively.) However, 10% of hospitals classified as average using the composite measure had below-average maternal outcomes, and 20% of hospitals classified as average using the composite measure had below-average newborn outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Maternal and newborn outcomes should be jointly reported because hospital rates of maternal morbidity and newborn morbidity are poorly correlated. This can be done using a childbirth composite measure alongside separate measures of maternal and newborn outcomes.

Impact of Medicaid Policy on the Oral Health of Publicly Insured Children.

Objective Fluoride varnish (FV) applications among non-dentist primary care providers has increased due to state Medicaid policies. In this study we examine the impact of FV policies on the oral health of publicly insured children aged 2-6 years old. Methods Using three waves of the National Survey of Children's Health (2003, 2007, 2011/12), we used a logistic regression model with state and year fixed effects, adjusting for relevant child characteristics, to examine the association between years since a state implemented a FV policy and the odds of a publicly insured child having very good or excellent teeth. We compared children with public insurance in states with FV policies to children with public insurance in states without FV policies, controlling for the same difference among children with private insurance who were unlikely to be affected by Medicaid FV policies. Results Among 68,890 children aged 2-6 years, 38% had public insurance. Compared to privately insured children, publicly insured children had significantly lower odds of having very good or excellent teeth [odds ratio (OR) 0.70, 95% CI 0.62-0.81]. Publicly insured children in states with FV policies implemented for four or more years had significantly greater odds of having very good or excellent teeth (OR 1.28, 95% CI 1.03-1.60) compared to publicly insured children in states without FV policies. Conclusions for Practice State policies supporting non-dental primary care providers application of FV were associated with improvements in oral health for young children with public insurance.

Association Among County-Level Economic Factors, Clinician Supply, Metropolitan or Rural Location, and Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome.

Importance: Neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS) has increased over the last 2 decades, but limited data exist on its association with economic conditions or clinician supply. Objective: To determine the association among long-term unemployment, clinician supply (as assessed by primary care and mental health clinician shortage areas), and rates of NAS and evaluate how associations differ based on rurality. Design, Setting, and Participants: Ecological time-series analysis of a retrospective, repeated cross-sectional study using outcome data from all 580 counties in Florida, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Michigan, New York, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Washington from 2009 to 2015 and economic data from 2000 to 2015. Negative binomial models were used with year and county-level fixed effects. Interactions were tested and stratified analyses were conducted by metropolitan counties, rural counties adjacent to metropolitan counties, and rural remote counties. Exposures: County-level 10-year unemployment rate and mental health and primary care clinician supply obtained from the Health Resources and Services Administration Area Health Resources Files. Main Outcomes and Measure: Rates of NAS, excluding iatrogenic withdrawal, obtained from state inpatient databases. Results: The sample included observations from 580 counties over 7 years (1803 county-years from metropolitan counties, 1268 county-years from rural counties adjacent to metropolitan counties, and 927 county-years from rural remote counties). During the study period, there were 6 302 497 births and 47 224 diagnoses of NAS. The median rate of NAS was 7.1 per 1000 hospital births (interquartile range [IQR], 2.2-15.8), the 10-year unemployment rate was 7.6% (IQR, 6.4%-9.0%), and 83.9% of county-years were partial or complete mental health shortage areas. In the adjusted analyses, mental health shortage areas had higher NAS rates (unadjusted rate in shortage areas of 14.0 per 1000 births vs unadjusted rate in nonshortage areas of 10.6 per 1000 births; adjusted incidence rate ratio [IRR], 1.17 [95% CI, 1.07-1.27]), occurring primarily in metropolitan counties (adjusted IRR, 1.28 [95% CI, 1.16-1.40]; P = .02 for test of equivalence between metropolitan counties and rural counties adjacent to metropolitan counties). There was no significant association between primary care shortage areas and rates of NAS. The 10-year unemployment rate was associated with higher rates of NAS (unadjusted rate in highest unemployment quartile of 20.1 per 1000 births vs 7.8 per 1000 births in lowest unemployment quartile; adjusted IRR, 1.11 [95% CI, 1.00-1.23]) occurring primarily in rural remote counties (adjusted IRR, 1.34 [95% CI, 1.05-1.70]; P = .04 for test of equivalence between metropolitan counties and rural remote counties). Conclusions and Relevance: In this ecological analysis of counties in 8 US states, there was a significant association among higher long-term unemployment, higher mental health clinician shortage areas, and higher county-level rates of neonatal abstinence syndrome.

Impact of the Choice of Risk Model for Identifying Low-risk Patients Using the 2014 American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Perioperative Guidelines.

WHAT WE ALREADY KNOW ABOUT THIS TOPIC: WHAT THIS ARTICLE TELLS US THAT IS NEW: BACKGROUND:: The 2014 American College of Cardiology Perioperative Guideline recommends risk stratifying patients scheduled to undergo noncardiac surgery using either: (1) the Revised Cardiac Index; (2) the American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement Program Surgical Risk Calculator; or (3) the Myocardial Infarction or Cardiac Arrest calculator. The aim of this study is to determine how often these three risk-prediction tools agree on the classification of patients as low risk (less than 1%) of major adverse cardiac event. METHODS: This is a retrospective observational study using a sample of 10,000 patient records. The risk of cardiac complications was calculated for the Revised Cardiac Index and the Myocardial Infarction or Cardiac Arrest models using published coefficients, and for the American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement Program Surgical Risk Calculator using the publicly available website. The authors used the intraclass correlation coefficient and kappa analysis to quantify the degree of agreement between these three risk-prediction tools. RESULTS: There is good agreement between the American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement Program and Myocardial Infarction or Cardiac Arrest estimates of major adverse cardiac events (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.68, 95% CI: 0.66 to 0.70), while only poor agreement between (1) American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement Program Surgical Risk Calculator and the Revised Cardiac Index (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.37; 95% CI: 0.34 to 0.40), and (2) Myocardial Infarction or Cardiac Arrest and Revised Cardiac Index (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.26; 95% CI: 0.23 to 0.30). The three prediction models disagreed 29% of the time on which patients were low risk. CONCLUSIONS: There is wide variability in the predicted risk of cardiac complications using different risk-prediction tools. Including more than one prediction tool in clinical guidelines could lead to differences in decision-making for some patients depending on which risk calculator is used.

Variability in Case Durations for Common Surgical Procedures.

BACKGROUND: Under the Merit-based Incentive Payment System, physician payment will be adjusted using a composite performance score that has 4 components, one of which is resource use. The objective of this exploratory study is to quantify the facility-level variation in surgical case duration for common surgeries to examine the feasibility of using surgical case duration as a performance metric. METHODS: We used data from the National Anesthesia Clinical Outcomes Registry on 404,987 adult patients undergoing one of 6 general surgical or orthopedic procedures: laparoscopic appendectomy, laparoscopic cholecystectomy, laparoscopic cholecystectomy with intraoperative cholangiogram, knee arthroscopy, laminectomy, and total hip replacement. We constructed separate mixed-effects multivariable time-to-event models (survival analysis) for each of the 6 procedures to model surgical case duration. RESULTS: We identified performance outliers, based on surgical case duration, using 2013 data and then quantified the gap between high- and low-performance outliers using 2014 data. After adjusting for patient risk, patients undergoing surgery at high-performance facilities were between 54% and 79% more likely to exit the operating room (OR) per unit time compared to average-performing facilities, depending on the procedure. For example, patients undergoing a laparoscopic appendectomy at high-performance facilities were 68% more likely to exit the OR per unit time (hazard ratio, 1.68; 95% CI, 1.40-2.02; P < .001) compared to average-performing facilities. Patients undergoing a laparoscopic appendectomy at low-performance facilities were 41% less likely to exit the OR per unit time (hazard ratio, 0.59; 95% CI, 0.47-0.74; P < .001) compared to average-performing facilities. The adjusted median surgical case duration for patients undergoing laparoscopic appendectomy was 69 minutes at high-performance centers and 92 minutes at low-performance centers. Similar results were obtained for the other procedures. CONCLUSIONS: There was wide variation in surgery case duration for patients undergoing common general surgical and orthopedic surgeries. This variability in care delivery may represent an important opportunity to promote more efficient use of health care resources.

Nursing Home Infection Control Program Characteristics, CMS Citations, and Implementation of Antibiotic Stewardship Policies: A National Study.

Recently, the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) final rule required that nursing homes (NHs) develop an infection control program that includes an antibiotic stewardship component and employs a trained infection preventionist (IP). The objectives of this study were to provide a baseline assessment of (1) NH facility and infection control program characteristics associated with having an infection control deficiency citation and (2) associations between IP training and the presence of antibiotic stewardship policies, controlling for NH characteristics. A cross-sectional survey of 2514 randomly sampled US NHs was conducted to assess IP training, staff turnover, and infection control program characteristics (ie, frequency of infection control committee meetings and the presence of 7 antibiotic stewardship policies). Responses were linked to concurrent Certification and Survey Provider Enhanced Reporting data, which contain information about NH facility characteristics and citations. Descriptive statistics and multivariable regression analyses were conducted to account for NH characteristics. Surveys were received from 990 NHs; 922 had complete data. One-third of NHs in this sample received an infection control deficiency citation. The NHs that received deficiency citations were more likely to have committees that met weekly/monthly versus quarterly ( P < .01). The IPs in 39% of facilities had received specialized training. Less than 3% of trained IPs were certified in infection control. The NHs with trained IPs were more likely to have 5 of the 7 components of antibiotic stewardship in place (all P < .05). The IP training, although infrequent, was associated with the presence of antibiotic stewardship policies. Receiving an infection control citation was associated with more frequent infection control committee meetings. Training and support of IPs is needed to ensure infection control and antibiotic stewardship in NHs. As the CMS rule becomes implemented, more research is warranted. There is a need for increase in trained IPs in US NHs. These data can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of the CMS final rule on infection management processes in US NHs.

High-Risk Prescribing to Medicaid Enrollees Receiving Opioid Analgesics: Individual- and County-Level Factors.

BACKGROUND: Prescription opioid overdoses have increased dramatically in recent years, with the highest rates among Medicaid enrollees. High-risk prescribing includes practices associated with overdoses and a range of additional opioid-related problems. OBJECTIVES: To identify individual- and county-level factors associated with high-risk prescribing among Medicaid enrollees receiving opioids. METHODS: In a four-states, cross-sectional claims data study, Medicaid enrollees 18-64 years old with a new opioid analgesic treatment episode 2007-2009 were identified. Multivariate regression analyses were conducted to identify factors associated with high-risk prescribing, defined as high-dose opioid prescribing (morphine equivalent daily dose ≥100 mg for >6 days), opioid overlap, opioid-benzodiazepine overlap. RESULTS: High-risk prescribing occurred in 39.4% of episodes. Older age, rural county of residence, white race, and major depression diagnosis were associated with higher rates of all types of high-risk prescribing. Individuals with prior opioid, alcohol, and hypnotic/sedative use disorder diagnoses had lower odds of high-dose opioid prescribing but higher odds of opioid overlap and opioid-benzodiazepine overlap than individuals without such disorders. High-dose opioid prescribing in Massachusetts was less common than in California, Illinois, and New York, whereas the rate of benzodiazepine overlap in Massachusetts was more common than in other states. Conclusions/Importance: High-risk prescribing was common and associated with several important demographic, clinical, and community factors. Findings can be used to inform targeted interventions designed to reduce such prescribing, and given state variation observed, further research is needed to better understand the effects of state policies on high-risk prescribing.

A population-based examination of trends and disparities in medication treatment for opioid use disorders among Medicaid enrollees.

BACKGROUND: Medication treatment (MT) with methadone and buprenorphine are effective treatments for opioid use disorders, but little information is available regarding the extent to which buprenorphine's approval resulted in more individuals receiving MT nor to what extent receipt of such treatment was equitable across communities. METHODS: To examine changes in MT utilization and the association between MT utilization and county-level indicators of poverty, race/ethnicity, and urbanicity, we used Medicaid claims of non-dually eligible Medicaid enrollees aged 18-64 from 14 states for 2002-2009. We generated county-level aggregate counts of MT (methadone, buprenorphine, and any MT) by year (N = 7760 county-years). We estimated count data models to identify associations between MT and county characteristics, including levels of poverty and racial/ethnic concentration. RESULTS: The number of Medicaid enrollees receiving MT increased 62% from 2002 to 2009. The number of enrollees receiving methadone increased 20%, with the remaining increase resulting from buprenorphine. Urban county residents were significantly more likely to receive MT in both 2002 and 2009 than rural county residents. However, buprenorphine substantially increased MT in rural counties from 2002 to 2009. Receipt of MT increased at a much higher rate for residents of counties with lower poverty rates and lower concentrations of black and Hispanic individuals than for residents of counties without those characteristics. CONCLUSIONS: The increase in Medicaid enrollees receiving MT in the years following buprenorphine's approval is encouraging. However, it is concerning that MT trends varied so dramatically by characteristics of the county population and that increases in utilization were substantially lower in counties with populations that historically have been disadvantaged with respect to health care access and quality. Concerted efforts are needed to ensure that MT benefits are equitably distributed across society and reach disadvantaged individuals who may be at higher risk of experiencing opioid use disorders.