Seawater fish use an electrogenic boric acid transporter, Slc4a11A, for boric acid excretion by the kidney.

Boric acid is a vital micronutrient in animals; however, excess amounts are toxic to them. Little is known about whole-body boric acid homeostasis in animals. Seawater (SW) contains 0.4 mM boric acid, and since marine fish drink SW, their urinary system was used here as a model of the boric acid excretion system. We determined that the bladder urine of a euryhaline pufferfish (river pufferfish, Takifugu obscurus) acclimated to fresh water and SW contained 0.020 and 19 mM of boric acid, respectively (a 950-fold difference), indicating the presence of a powerful excretory renal system for boric acid. Slc4a11 is a potential animal homolog of the plant boron transporter BOR1; however, mammalian Slc4a11 mediates H+ (OH-) conductance but does not transport boric acid. We found that renal expression of the pufferfish paralog of Slc4a11, Slc4a11A, was markedly induced after transfer from fresh water to SW, and Slc4a11A was localized to the apical membrane of kidney tubules. When pufferfish Slc4a11A was expressed in Xenopus oocytes, exposure to media containing boric acid and a voltage clamp elicited whole-cell outward currents, a marked increase in pHi, and increased boron content. In addition, the activity of Slc4a11A was independent of extracellular Na+. These results indicate that pufferfish Slc4a11A is an electrogenic boric acid transporter that functions as a B(OH)4- uniporter, B(OH)3-OH- cotransporter, or B(OH)3/H+ exchanger. These observations suggest that Slc4a11A is involved in the kidney tubular secretion of boric acid in SW fish, probably induced by the negative membrane potential and low pH of urine.

Sex determination by ultrasonography prior to artificial breeding of the pufferfish Arothron manilensis (Tetraodontiformes, Tetraodontidae).

Artificial breeding was induced in the pufferfish Arothron manilensis following ultrasonographic sex determination. Hormonal treatment of mature male and female specimens followed the collection (and measurement) of fully developed eggs by cannulation. Fertilized eggs (0.85 ± 0.02 mm diameter) were spherical, demersal and individually adhesive. Hatching occurred 5 days after fertilization, larvae being 2.23 ± 0.15 mm in total length and 2.08 ± 0.14 mm in notochord length. The larvae had all died within 14 days of hatching. To improve artificial breeding techniques for A. manilensis, it is necessary to determine more appropriate timing for hormone injection, as well as feeding nutrient-enhanced SS type Brachionus sp. to newly hatched larvae.

Tandem spawning and development in the African freshwater pufferfish Tetraodon schoutedeni.

To advance breeding techniques for the African freshwater pufferfish Tetraodon schoutedeni and observe tandem spawning closely, we monitored the reproduction of captive individuals. Eight spawning sessions (stable water temperature 24-25°C; daily light period 07:00-19:00) occurred between May 2016 and November 2017. After 65-150 min of tandem swimming (the male biting and clinging to the female's abdomen), 3-50 spherical, weakly adhesive eggs were spawned, being scattered onto the sandy substrate or water plants. The removal of cohabitants (potentially eating spawned eggs) and provision of small initial food items, such as small-type Brachionus spp., for larval fish were essential for successful breeding.

Correction of Humpback Deformities in Patients With Scaphoid Nonunion Using 1,2-Intercompartmental Supraretinacular Artery Pedicled Vascularized Bone Grafting With a Dorsoradial Approach.

PURPOSE: Although 1,2-intercompartmental supraretinacular artery (1,2-ICSRA)-based vascularized bone grafting (VBG) has gained popularity in the treatment of scaphoid nonunion, correcting humpback deformities with this technique remains challenging. The purpose of this retrospective study was to determine the possibility of correcting humpback deformities using a 1,2-ICSRA VBG with a dorsoradial approach. METHODS: We treated 25 patients with scaphoid nonunion using a 1,2-ICSRA VBG between January 2007 and December 2017. For those with a humpback deformity, we performed vascularized wedge grafting from the dorsoradial side, instead of inlay bone grafting from the dorsal or volar side of the scaphoid. After excluding patients with scaphoid nonunion without a humpback deformity and those followed up for less than 6 months, we reviewed the imaging results and union rate in the remaining 19 patients (18 men and 1 woman). The nonunion sites and patient distribution were as follows: proximal one-third, 2; waist, 16; and distal one-third, 1. RESULTS: The union rate at the last follow-up performed a minimum of 6 months after the intervention was 94.7%. The correction was adequate in 17 patients and inadequate in 2 patients. The lateral intrascaphoid, radiolunate, and scapholunate angles were improved. CONCLUSIONS: Humpback and dorsal intercalated segmental instability deformities can be corrected adequately using a 1,2-ICSRA VBG with a dorsoradial approach. TYPE OF STUDY/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic IV.

Breastfeeding and risk of food allergy: A nationwide birth cohort in Japan.

BACKGROUND: Although breastfeeding has been well-established as the preferred method for infant nutrition, its prophylactic effects on food allergy remain controversial. Infantile eczema has been linked to food allergy via percutaneous sensitization; however, this relationship has not been considered in previous studies. We aimed to uncover the prophylactic effects of breastfeeding on food allergy, focusing on eczema-mediated percutaneous sensitization. METHODS: This retrospective cohort study was based on 46,616 children from the Longitudinal Survey of Newborns in the 21st Century in Japan, begun in 2001. We classified participants into three groups based on infant feeding practices (exclusive breastfeeding, partial breastfeeding including only colostrum, and formula feeding only) and used information from at least one outpatient visit for food allergy during two observation periods (age 6-18 months and age 6-66 months) as health outcomes. We performed log-binomial regression analysis adjusted for potential confounders and stratified analysis according to infantile eczema status. RESULTS: Compared with formula feeding, partial breastfeeding including only colostrum reduced the risk of food allergy only in children with infantile eczema, (RR = 0.66, 95% CI: 0.46, 0.96 for age 6-66 months), whereas exclusive breastfeeding increased this risk in those without infantile eczema (RR = 2.41, 95% CI: 1.40, 4.15, age 6-66 months). The prophylactic effects of breastfeeding on food allergy in the infantile eczema group increased with shorter breastfeeding duration. CONCLUSIONS: Our results showed that breastfeeding, especially colostrum, had prophylactic effects on food allergy only among high-risk children with infantile eczema whereas prolonged breastfeeding increased the risk of food allergy.

Physical activity and incident dementia in older Japanese adults: The Okayama study.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the association between regular physical activity and the risk of incident dementia in older Japanese adults. METHODS: This was a retrospective cohort study performed in Okayama City, Japan. Overall, 51 477 older Japanese adults were followed from 2008 to 2014. A health checkup questionnaire was used to assess regular physical activity. The Dementia Scale of long-term care insurance was used as a measure of incident dementia. Cox proportional hazard models were used to calculate adjusted hazard ratios, with their 95% confidence intervals, for the incidence of dementia across the categories of physical activity. RESULTS: During a 7-year follow-up, 13 816 subjects were considered as having incident dementia. Compared with participants who performed physical activity less than or equal to one time per week, the multivariate adjusted hazard ratio values (95% confidence intervals) for participants who performed physical activity greater than or equal to two times per week but not every day and those who performed physical activity every day were 0.79 (0.75-0.84) and 0.94 (0.89-0.98), respectively. The interaction of physical activity and sex was statistically significant (P < .01). In subgroup analysis, the multivariate-adjusted hazard ratio values (95% confidence intervals) remained low, at 0.76 (0.70-0.84) in males and 0.81 (0.76-0.87) in females who performed physical activity greater than or equal to two times per week but not every day; they were 0.82 (0.76-0.89) in males and 1.01 (0.95-1.07) in females who performed physical activity every day. CONCLUSIONS: Regular physical activity could reduce the risk of incident dementia in older Japanese adults, except females who performed physical activity every day.

Population-based longitudinal study showed that children born small for gestational age faced a higher risk of hospitalisation during early childhood.

AIM: We examined the effects of being born small for gestational age (SGA) on the risk of being hospitalised for common diseases during childhood. METHODS: This Japanese nationwide, population-based longitudinal survey followed babies born before 42 weeks of gestation from 10 to 17 January and from 10 to 17 July 2001, using data from the Government's Longitudinal Survey of Babies in the 21st Century. Our study followed 41 268 children until 5.5 years of age: 39 107 full term (8.7% SGA) and 2161 preterm (15.5% SGA). We evaluated the relationship between SGA status and hospitalisation using their history of hospitalisation for common diseases and comparing full-term or preterm births. Logistic regression analysis, adjusted for potential confounders, estimated the odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). RESULTS: The full-term and preterm children who were born SGA were more likely to be hospitalised during infancy and early childhood than those born non SGA. The ORs for hospitalisation from six months to 18 months of age were 1.23 (95% CI: 1.10-1.37) for full-term and 1.67 (95% CI: 1.23-2.25) for preterm subjects. Higher risks of hospitalisation due to bronchitis, pneumonia, bronchial asthma and diarrhoea were also observed. CONCLUSION: Being born SGA was associated with all-cause and cause-specific hospitalisation in early childhood, particularly for term infants.

Intrauterine and Early Postnatal Exposure to Particulate Air Pollution and Kawasaki Disease: A Nationwide Longitudinal Survey in Japan.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the effects of prenatal and postnatal exposure to particulate matter on Kawasaki disease (KD) occurrence, using data from a nationwide population-based longitudinal survey in Japan that began in 2010. STUDY DESIGN: Prenatal and postnatal suspended particulate matter concentrations were obtained at municipality level and assigned to participants based on their municipality of birth. We analyzed data from 30 367 participants with data on either exposure period. We used hospital admission for KD from 6 to 30 months of age as the main outcome of interest. We conducted a multilevel logistic regression analysis, adjusting for individual and municipality-level variables. RESULTS: Children who were exposed to higher levels of suspended particulate matter, in particular during pregnancy, were more likely to be hospitalized for KD. The ORs for ≥25 µg/m3 exposure compared with <20 µg/m3 exposure were 1.59 (95% CI 1.06, 2.38) for prenatal exposure and 1.41 (0.82, 2.41) for postnatal exposure. Prenatal exposure during mid-to-late gestation seemed to be more relevant for the increased risk. CONCLUSIONS: Early life exposure to particulate air pollution, in particular during pregnancy, is associated with an increased risk of KD hospital admission in early childhood in a nationally representative sample in Japan.

Catch-Up Growth and Neurobehavioral Development among Full-Term, Small-for-Gestational-Age Children: A Nationwide Japanese Population-Based Study.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the relationship between catch-up growth of full-term, small for gestational age (SGA) children and their neurobehavioral development. STUDY DESIGN: Data were obtained from a population-based nationwide Japanese longitudinal survey that started in 2001. Study participants were full-term children with information on height at 2 years of age (n = 32 533). Catch-up growth for SGA infants was defined as achieving a height at 2 years of age of more than -2.0 standard deviations for chronological age. Logistic regression analyses were used to estimate ORs and 95% CIs for the associations of SGA and catch-up growth status with neurobehavioral development at 2.5 and 8 years of age, adjusting for potential infant- and parent-related confounding factors. RESULTS: Fifteen percent of term SGA infants failed to catch up in height. At 2.5 years of age, SGA children without catch-up growth were more likely to be unable to climb stairs (OR, 10.42; 95% CI, 5.55-19.56) and unable to compose a 2-word sentence (OR, 3.58; 95% CI, 1.81-7.08) compared with children with normal growth at birth. Furthermore, SGA children without catch-up growth were at increased risk for aggressive behaviors (OR, 3.85; 95% CI, 1.19-12.47) at 8 years of age. CONCLUSIONS: Continuous follow-up for full-term SGA infants with failure of catch-up growth or poor postnatal growth may be beneficial for early detection and intervention for behavioral problems.

Difference in Uptake of Tetrodotoxin and Saxitoxins into Liver Tissue Slices among Pufferfish, Boxfish and Porcupinefish.

Although pufferfish of the family Tetraodontidae contain high levels of tetrodotoxin (TTX) mainly in the liver, some species of pufferfish, boxfish of the family Ostraciidae, and porcupinefish of the family Diodontidae do not. To clarify the mechanisms, uptake of TTX and saxitoxins (STXs) into liver tissue slices of pufferfish, boxfish and porcupinefish was examined. Liver tissue slices of the pufferfish (toxic species Takifugu rubripes and non-toxic species Lagocephalus spadiceus, L. cheesemanii and Sphoeroides pachygaster) incubated with 50 µM TTX accumulated TTX (0.99-1.55 µg TTX/mg protein) after 8 h, regardless of the toxicity of the species. In contrast, in liver tissue slices of boxfish (Ostracion immaculatus) and porcupinefish (Diodon holocanthus, D. liturosus, D. hystrix and Chilomycterus reticulatus), TTX content did not increase with incubation time, and was about 0.1 µg TTX/mg protein. When liver tissue slices were incubated with 50 µM STXs for 8 h, the STXs content was <0.1 µg STXs/mg protein, irrespective of the fish species. These findings indicate that, like the toxic species of pufferfish T. rubripes, non-toxic species such as L. spadiceus, L. cheesemanii and S. pachygaster, potentially take up TTX into the liver, while non-toxic boxfish and porcupinefish do not take up either TTX or STXs.

Impact of maternal and paternal smoking on birth outcomes.

Background: The adverse effects of maternal and paternal smoking on child health have been studied. However, few studies demonstrate the interaction effects of maternal/paternal smoking, and birth outcomes other than birth weight have not been evaluated. The present study examined individual effects of maternal/paternal smoking and their interactions on birth outcomes. Methods: A follow-up hospital-based study from pregnancy to delivery was conducted from 1997 to 2010 with parents and newborn infants who delivered at a large hospital in Hamamatsu, Japan. The relationships between smoking and growth were evaluated with logistic regression. Results: The individual effects of maternal smoking are related to low birth weight (LBW), short birth length and small head circumference. The individual effects of paternal smoking are related to short birth length and small head circumference. In the adjusted model, both parents' smoking showed clear associations with LBW (odds ratio [OR] = 1.64, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.18-2.27) and short birth length (-1 standard deviation [SD] OR = 1.38, 95% CI 1.07-1.79; -2 SD OR = 2.75, 95% CI 1.84-4.10). Conclusions: Maternal smoking was significantly associated with birth weight and length, but paternal smoking was not. However, if both parents smoked, the risk of shorter birth length increased.

New age-based weight estimation formulae for Japanese children.

BACKGROUND: Although dosing and sizing of resuscitation drugs and equipment are mostly weight based, time is usually insufficient to weigh critically ill children. Many age-based weight estimation formulae for emergency use have been developed worldwide, but there is no specific formula for Japanese children. The aim of this study was therefore to develop and validate age-based formulae for estimating the bodyweight of children living in Japan. METHODS: A total of 370 980 measurements of bodyweight were obtained from 39 547 participants aged 12-155 months. They participated in a national survey, called the Longitudinal Survey of Babies in the 21st Century, which started in 2001. We created the new original weight estimation formulae for children living in Japan, called the Japanese Pediatric Assessment of Normal weight (JAPAN) formulae, using 75% of measurements that were randomly selected from the total measurements. To check the validity of the formulae, we applied the JAPAN formulae, the Park et al. formula for Korean children, and the commonly used Nelson formula for the remaining 25% of measurements. The mean absolute error and the root mean square error (RMSE) were calculated for each scale. RESULTS: The JAPAN formulae performed better than the two other formulae among Japanese children, with a mean absolute error and RMSE of 0.83 and 1.08 (kg), respectively. The performance of the Park et al. formulae for Korean children was poor for children living in Japan. CONCLUSIONS: The newly developed JAPAN formulae for age-based weight estimation are appropriate for children living in Japan.

Evaluating the Effects of Air Pollution from a Plastic Recycling Facility on the Health of Nearby Residents.

We evaluated how exposure to airborne volatile organic compounds emitted from a plastic recycling facility affected nearby residents, in a cross-sectional study. Individuals>10 years old were randomly sampled from 50 households at five sites and given questionnaires to complete. We categorized the subjects by distance from the recycling facility and used this as a proxy measure for pollutant exposure. We sought to improve on a preceding study by generating new findings, improving methods for questionnaire distribution and collection, and refining site selection. We calculated the odds of residents living 500 or 900 m away from the facility reporting mucocutaneous and respiratory symptoms using a reference group of residents 2,800 m away. Self-reported nasal congestion (odds ratio=3.0, 95% confidence interval=1.02-8.8), eczema (5.1, 1.1-22.9), and sore throat (3.9, 1.1-14.1) were significantly higher among residents 500 m from the facility. Those 900 m away were also considerably more likely to report experiencing eczema (4.6, 1.4-14.9). Air pollution was found responsible for significantly increased reports of mucocutaneous and respiratory symptoms among nearby residents. Our findings confirm the effects of pollutants emitted from recycling facilities on residents' health and clarify that study design differences did not affect the results.

Fine-particulate Air Pollution from Diesel Emission Control and Mortality Rates in Tokyo: A Quasi-experimental Study.

BACKGROUND: Evidence linking air pollution with adverse health outcomes is accumulating. However, few studies have adopted a quasi-experimental design to evaluate whether decline in air pollution from regulatory action improves public health. We evaluated the effect of a diesel emission control ordinance introduced in 2003 on mortality rates in 23 wards of the Tokyo metropolitan area, Japan, from October 2000 to September 2012, taking into account change in mortality rates in a reference population (Osaka) with a introduction of such a regulation in 2009. METHODS: We obtained daily counts of all-cause and cause-specific mortality and concentrations of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and particulate matter less than 2.5 µm in diameter (PM2.5) during the study period. We employed interrupted time-series analysis to analyze the data. RESULTS: Decline in NO2 during the study period was similar in the two areas, while decline in PM2.5 and the improvement in age-standardized mortality rates were greater in Tokyo's 23 wards compared with Osaka. Even after adjusting for age-standardized mortality rates in Osaka, percent changes in mortality between the first 3-year interval (October 2000 to September 2003) and the last 3-year interval (October 2009 to September 2012) were -6.0% for all causes, -11% for cardiovascular disease, -10% for ischemic heart disease, -6.2% for cerebrovascular disease, -22% for pulmonary disease, and -4.9% for lung cancer. We did not observe a decline in mortality from other causes. CONCLUSIONS: This quasi-experimental study in Tokyo suggests that emission control was associated with improvements in both air quality and health outcomes.

Prenatal Exposure to Traffic-related Air Pollution and Child Behavioral Development Milestone Delays in Japan.

BACKGROUND: Recent studies suggest that prenatal exposure to outdoor air pollution is associated with unfavorable neurodevelopment in children. We examined associations between prenatal exposure to traffic-related air pollution and child behavioral development milestone delays, using data from a nationwide population-based longitudinal survey in Japan, where the participants were recruited in 2001 and followed. METHODS: Particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide concentrations during the 9 months before birth were obtained at the municipality level and assigned to the participants who were born in the corresponding municipality. We analyzed data from singleton births with linked pollution data available (N = 33,911 at the maximum). We used responses to survey questions about age-appropriate behaviors at ages 2.5 and 5.5 years as indicators of behavioral development. We conducted multilevel logistic regression analysis, adjusting for individual and municipality-level variables. RESULTS: Air pollution exposure during gestation was positively associated with the risk of some developmental milestone delays at both ages. Specifically, air pollution was associated with verbal and fine motor development at age 2.5 years, and with behaviors related to inhibition and impulsivity at 5.5 years. In the fully-adjusted models, odds ratios following one-interquartile-range increase in nitrogen dioxide and suspended particulate matter were 1.24 (95% confidence interval: 1.07, 1.43) for inability to compose a two-phrase sentence at ages 2.5 and 1.10 (1.05, 1.16) for inability to express emotions at age 5.5 years, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Prenatal exposure to traffic-related air pollution was associated with behavioral development milestone delays of children in a nationally representative sample in Japan.

LPXRFamide peptide stimulates growth hormone and prolactin gene expression during the spawning period in the grass puffer, a semi-lunar synchronized spawner.

Gonadotropin-inhibitory hormone (GnIH) plays as a multifunctional neurohormone that controls reproduction in birds and mammals. LPXRFamide (LPXRFa) peptide, the fish ortholog of GnIH, has been shown to regulate the secretion of not only gonadotropin (GTH) but also growth hormone (GH) and prolactin (PRL), which are potentially important for gonadal function. To investigate the role of LPXRFa peptide on reproduction of the grass puffer, which spawns in semilunar cycles, we examined changes in the levels of gh and prl expression over the several months during the reproductive cycle, and the effects of goldfish LPXRFa peptide-1 (gfLPXRFa-1) on their expression were examined using primary pituitary cultures. The expression levels of both gh and prl showed significant changes during the reproductive cycle in both sexes with one peak in the spawning and pre-spawning periods for gh and prl, respectively. Particularly, gh showed substantial increase in expression in the spawning and post-spawning periods, indicative of its essentiality in the advanced stage of reproduction. gfLPXRFa-1 stimulated the expression of both gh and prl but there was a marked difference in response between them: gfLPXRFa-1 stimulated gh expression at a relatively low dose but little effect was observed on prl. Combined with the previous results of daily and circadian oscillations of lpxrfa expression, the present results suggest that LPXRFa peptide is important in the control of the cyclic reproduction by serving as a multifunctional hypophysiotropic factor that regulates the expression of gh and prl as well as GTH subunit genes.

Children's Media Use and Self-Regulation Behavior: Longitudinal Associations in a Nationwide Japanese Study.

Objective The effect of media use on child behavior has long been a concern. Although studies have shown robust cross-sectional relations between TV viewing and child behavior, longitudinal studies remain scarce. Methods We analyzed the Longitudinal Survey of Babies, conducted by Japan's Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare since 2001. Among 53,575 families, 47,010 responded to the baseline survey; they were followed up every year for 8 years. Complete data were available for longitudinal analysis among 32,439 participants. Daily media use (TV viewing and video game-playing hours at ages 3, 4, and 5 years) was used as the main exposure. We employed an index of the children's self-regulatory behavior as the outcome variable. Odds ratios and 95 % confidence intervals (CIs) were estimated. Results Among boys, longer TV-viewing times at ages 4 and 5 were related to problematic self-regulatory behavior. Compared with boys who watched just 1-2 h of TV a day, those who watched it 4-5 h had a 1.79-fold greater risk (CI 1.22-2.64) of problematic self-regulatory behavior, according to parental report. Among girls, similar results were evident at ages 4 and 5 (e.g., adjusted odds ratios for 4-5 h daily viewing versus 1-2 h at age 4: 2.59; 95 % CI 1.59-4.22). Video games may have a protective effect on the risk of problematic self-regulatory behavior at ages 3 and 5. Conclusion Longer daily exposure to TV during early childhood (age 4-5) may be associated with subsequent problematic child self-regulatory behavior.

Association between Short Maternal Height and Low Birth Weight: a Hospital-based Study in Japan.

Anthropometry measurements, such as height and weight, have recently been used to predict poorer birth outcomes. However, the relationship between maternal height and birth outcomes remains unclear. We examined the effect of shorter maternal height on low birth weight (LBW) among 17,150 pairs of Japanese mothers and newborns. Data for this analysis were collected from newborns who were delivered at a large hospital in Japan. Maternal height was the exposure variable, and LBW and admission to the neonatal intensive care unit were the outcome variables. Logistic regression models were used to estimate the associations. The shortest maternal height quartile (131.0-151.9 cm) was related to LBW (OR 1.91 [95% CI 1.64, 2.22]). The groups with the second (152.0-157.9 cm) and the third shortest maternal height quartiles (158.0-160.9 cm) were also related to LBW. A P trend with one quartile change also showed a significant relationship. The relationship between maternal height and NICU admission disappeared when the statistical model was adjusted for LBW. A newborn's small size was one factor in the relationship between shorter maternal height and NICU admission. In developed countries, shorter mothers provide a useful prenatal target to anticipate and plan for LBW newborns and NICU admission.

Aflatoxins in Rice Artificially Contaminated with Aflatoxin-producing Aspergillus flavus under Natural Storage in Japan.

Aflatoxin (AFT) contamination is frequent in foods grown in tropical regions, including rice. Although AFTs are generally not found in temperate-region foods, global warming has affected typical temperate-region climates, potentially permitting the contamination of foods with AFT-producing Aspergillus flavus (A. flavus). Here we investigated the AFT production in rice during storage under natural climate conditions in Japan. We examined AFTs in brown rice and rough rice artificially contaminated with A. flavus for 1 year in Japan, and we subjected AFTs in white rice to the same treatment in airtight containers and examined the samples in warm and cold seasons, simulating the storage of white rice in general households. In the brown rice, AFTs increased after 2 months (March) and peaked after 9 months (October). The AFT contamination in the rough rice was minimal. After the polishing and cooking of the brown rice, AFTs were undetectable. In the white rice stored in airtight containers, AFTs increased after 1 month (August) and peaked after 2 months (September). Minimal AFTs were detected in the cold season. Thus, AFT contamination in rice may occur in temperate regions following A. flavus contamination. The storage of rice as rough rice could provide be useful for avoiding AFT contamination.

Li(+) solvation in glyme-Li salt solvate ionic liquids.

Certain molten complexes of Li salts and solvents can be regarded as ionic liquids. In this study, the local structure of Li(+) ions in equimolar mixtures ([Li(glyme)]X) of glymes (G3: triglyme and G4: tetraglyme) and Li salts (LiX: lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)amide (Li[TFSA]), lithium bis(pentafluoroethanesulfonyl)amide (Li[BETI]), lithium trifluoromethanesulfonate (Li[OTf]), LiBF4, LiClO4, LiNO3, and lithium trifluoroacetate (Li[TFA])) was investigated to discriminate between solvate ionic liquids and concentrated solutions. Raman spectra and ab initio molecular orbital calculations have shown that the glyme molecules adopt a crown-ether like conformation to form a monomeric [Li(glyme)](+) in the molten state. Further, Raman spectroscopic analysis allowed us to estimate the fraction of the free glyme in [Li(glyme)]X. The amount of free glyme was estimated to be a few percent in [Li(glyme)]X with perfluorosulfonylamide type anions, and thereby could be regarded as solvate ionic liquids. Other equimolar mixtures of [Li(glyme)]X were found to contain a considerable amount of free glyme, and they were categorized as traditional concentrated solutions. The activity of Li(+) in the glyme-Li salt mixtures was also evaluated by measuring the electrode potential of Li/Li(+) as a function of concentration, by using concentration cells against a reference electrode. At a higher concentration of Li salt, the amount of free glyme diminishes and affects the electrode reaction, leading to a drastic increase in the electrode potential. Unlike conventional electrolytes (dilute and concentrated solutions), the significantly high electrode potential found in the solvate ILs indicates that the solvation of Li(+) by the glyme forms stable and discrete solvate ions ([Li(glyme)](+)) in the molten state. This anomalous Li(+) solvation may have a great impact on the electrode reactions in Li batteries.