Best practices in pain assessment and management for children.

Pain assessment and management are essential components of paediatric care. Developmentally appropriate pain assessment is an important first step in optimizing pain management. Self-reported pain should be prioritized. Alternatively, developmentally appropriate behavioural tools should be used. Acute pain management and prevention guidelines and strategies that combine physical, psychological, and pharmacological approaches should be accessible in all health care settings. Chronic pain is best managed using combined treatment modalities and counselling, with the primary goal of attaining functional improvement. The planning and implementation of pain management strategies for children should always be personalized and family-centred.

Les pratiques exemplaires pour l'évaluation et le traitement de la douleur chez les enfants.

L'évaluation et le traitement de la douleur sont des aspects essentiels des soins pédiatriques. L'évaluation de la douleur adaptée au développement représente une première étape importante pour en optimiser la prise en charge. L'autoévaluation de la douleur est à prioriser. Si c'est impossible, des outils appropriés d'évaluation du comportement, adaptés au développement, doivent être utilisés. Des directives et stratégies de prise en charge et de prévention de la douleur aiguë, qui combinent des approches physiques, psychologiques et pharmacologiques, doivent être accessibles dans tous les milieux de soins. Le meilleur traitement de la douleur chronique fait appel à une combinaison de modalités thérapeutiques et de counseling, dans l'objectif premier d'obtenir une amélioration fonctionnelle. La planification et la mise en œuvre de stratégies de prise en charge de la douleur chez les enfants doivent toujours être personnalisées et axées sur la famille.

Medical management of gastro-esophageal reflux in healthy infants.

Clinical symptoms attributed to gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD) in healthy term infants are non-specific and overlap with age-appropriate behaviours. This practice point reviews the evidence for medically recommended management of this common condition. Current recommendations to manage GERD include feeding modifications such as thickening feeds or avoiding cow's milk protein. There is limited evidence for pharmacological management, including acid suppressive therapy or prokinetic agents, with the risks of such treatments often outweighing possible benefits due to significant safety and side effect concerns. Acid-suppressive therapy should not be routinely used for infants with GERD and is most likely to be useful in the context of symptoms that suggest erosive esophagitis. Evidence for managing symptoms attributed to GERD in otherwise healthy term infants less than 1 year of age is presented, and the over-prescription of medications in this population is discouraged. Anticipatory guidance regarding the natural resolution of reflux symptoms is recommended.

Evaluation of a clinical protocol using intranasal fentanyl for treatment of vaso-occlusive crisis in sickle cell patients in the emergency department.

BACKGROUND: Vaso-occlusive crisis (VOC) is one of the most frequent causes of emergency visits and admission in children with sickle cell disease (SCD). OBJECTIVES: This study aims to evaluate whether the use of a new pain management pathway using intranasal (IN) fentanyl from triage leads to improved care, translated by a decrease in time to first opiate dose. METHODS: We performed a retrospective chart review of patients with SCD who presented to the emergency department (ED) with VOC, in the period pre- (52 patients) and post- (44 patients) implementation period of the protocol. Time to first opiate was the primary outcome and was evaluated pre- and postimplementation. Patients received a first opiate dose within 52.3 minutes of registration (interquantile range [IQR] 30.6, 74.6), corresponding to a 41.4-minute reduction in the opiate administration time (95% confidence interval [CI] -56.1, -27.9). There was also a 43% increase in the number of patients treated with a nonintravenous (IV) opiate as first opiate dose (95% CI 26, 57). In patients who were discharged from the ED, there was a 49% decrease in the number of IV line insertions (95% CI -67, -22). There was no difference in the hospitalization rates (difference of 6 [95% CI -13, 25]). CONCLUSIONS: This study validates the use of our protocol using IN fentanyl as first treatment of VOC in the ED by significantly reducing the time to first opiate dose and the number of IVs.

Managing pain and distress in children undergoing brief diagnostic and therapeutic procedures.

Common medical procedures to assess and treat patients can cause significant pain and distress. Clinicians should have a basic approach for minimizing pain and distress in children, particularly for frequently used diagnostic and therapeutic procedures. This statement focuses on infants (excluding care provided in the NICU), children, and youth who are undergoing common, minor but painful medical procedures. Simple, evidence-based strategies for managing pain and distress are reviewed, with guidance for integrating them into clinical practice as an essential part of health care. Health professionals are encouraged to use minimally invasive approaches and, when painful procedures are unavoidable, to combine simple pain and distress-minimizing strategies to improve the patient, parent, and health care provider experience. Health administrators are encouraged to create institutional policies, improve education and access to guidelines, create child- and youth-friendly environments, ensure availability of appropriate staff, equipment and pharmacological agents, and perform quality audits to ensure pain management is optimal.

Oral morphine protocol evaluation for the treatment of vaso-occlusive crisis in paediatric sickle cell patients.

BACKGROUND: Vaso-occlusive crisis (VOC) is one of the most frequent causes of emergency visit and admission in children with sickle cell disease (SCD). OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to evaluate whether the implementation of a protocol promoting the use of oral morphine as a primary intervention has led to improved care of SCD. METHODS: We performed a retrospective chart review of patients with SCD who presented to the emergency department (ED) and hematology outpatient clinic (HOC) with VOC, in the year pre and postimplementation of the protocol. The primary outcome was the hospitalization rate. RESULTS: The protocol resulted in a significant 43% reduction of hospitalization rate (95% confidence interval [CI] -53.0, 26.5). Results also showed a 35% increase in the use of oral morphine as first-line opiate treatment (95% CI 17.9, 45.2), a 28% increase in the use of pain scales (95% CI 17.3, 43.2) and a 30% net increase in patients eventually not requiring intravenous (IV) line placement (95% CI 16.0, 39.9). While we did observe an overall decrease in length of stay in ED of -55 min (95% CI -100.6, -12.0), there was a nonsignificant decrease of 7 minutes (95% CI -26, 3) in the opiate administration time. CONCLUSIONS: This study validates the use of our oral morphine protocol for the treatment of VOC by significantly reducing the admission rate and decreasing the number of IVs.

Comparison of Tympanostomy Tubes Under Local Anesthesia Versus General Anesthesia for Children.

OBJECTIVE: Tympanostomy tube insertion (TTI) is typically accomplished under general anesthesia (GA) in the operating room. We aimed to compare pain between GA and local anesthesia (LA) in surgically naïve children undergoing TTI. Secondary objectives examined patient's quality of life (QoL) and parent's satisfaction. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective single-center study. SETTING: Tertiary pediatric academic center. METHODS: Consecutive children who underwent TTI under GA were compared to patients under LA. Pain standardized observational pain scales (Face, Legs, Activity, Cry, Consolability Scale [FLACC], Children's hospital of Eastern Ontario Pain Scale [CHEOPS]) were completed pre-procedure, during the first tympanostomy and second tympanostomy, and post-procedure, as well as 1 week postoperatively. General health-related QoL (PedsQL) and QoL specific to otitis media (OM-6) were measured before insertion and 1 month postoperatively. Parental satisfaction was also evaluated using a qualitative scale. RESULTS: LA group had statistically significant higher pain levels at the beginning (7.3 vs. 0), during the first tympanostomy (7.8 vs. 0), during the second tympanostomy (7.7 vs. 0), and at end of the procedure (6.9 vs. 0) with the FLACC scale (all p < 0.01). Results were similar with the CHEOPS scale. No pain was noted 1 week after surgery in either group. Both groups had similar improvement in their QoL (p > 0.05). Minor complication occurred at a similar rate (p > 0.05). Parents were equally satisfied with their choice of anesthesia in both groups when initially questioned after the procedure (p > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Children experienced significantly less pain under GA than LA. If LA is to be used, pain and distress-reducing strategies are critical. Shared decision-making with families is essential. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 3 Laryngoscope, 134:2422-2429, 2024.

Antireflux Procedures in Children With Neurologic Impairment: A National Survey of Physician Perspectives.

OBJECTIVE: Decision-making about antireflux procedures (ARPs) to treat gastroesophageal reflux disease in children with neurologic impairment and gastrostomy tubes is challenging and likely influenced by physicians' experience and perspectives. This study will explore physician attitudes about ARPs and determine if there are relationships to clinical practice and personal characteristics. METHODS: This is a national observational cross-sectional study that used an electronic questionnaire addressing reported practice, attitudes regarding the ARPs, and responses to clinical vignettes. Participants were physicians in Canadian tertiary-care pediatric settings. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze physician attitudes. Multivariable logistic regression modeling was used to determine associations between physician and practice characteristics and likelihood to consider ARP. RESULTS: Eighty three respondents represented 12 institutions, with a majority from general or complex care pediatrics. There was a wide disparity between likelihood to consider ARP in each clinical scenario. Likelihood to consider ARP ranged from to 19% to 78% depending on the scenario. Two scenarios were equally split in whether the respondent would offer an ARP. None of the demographic characteristics were significantly associated with likelihood to consider ARP. Often, gastrojejunostomy tubes alone were considered (56% to 68%). CONCLUSIONS: There is considerable variability in physician attitudes toward and recommendations regarding ARPs to treat gastroesophageal reflux disease. We did not find a significant association with clinical experience or location of practice. More research is needed to define indications and outcomes for ARPs. This is a scenario where shared decision-making, bringing together physician and family knowledge and expertise, is likely the best course of action.

Tympanostomy Tubes Under Local Versus General Anesthesia for Children: A Prospective Long-Term Study.

OBJECTIVES: Tympanostomy tube insertion (TTI) under local anesthesia (LA) is gaining popularity but literature comparing long-term outcomes for children undergoing TTI under LA versus general anesthesia (GA) is limited. This study compares the long-term quality of life (QoL) between LA and GA in children undergoing TTI. Secondary objectives included long-term behavioral changes, parental satisfaction, tube durability, and postoperative complications. METHODS: We prospectively followed children aged under 6 who underwent TTI, under LA or GA, 2 years prior. We assessed QoL using validated scales (OM6, PedsQL), analyzed behavioral changes and parental satisfaction through qualitative scales, and retrieved data on tube durability and non-immediate complications. RESULTS: A total of 84 children (LA = 42; GA = 42) had complete data and a minimum of 1 year of follow-up. Demographic data were similar, except for younger patients in the LA group (1.4 vs. 1.9 years, p = 0.02). LA group exhibited increased fear of health care professionals following TTI (LA: Likert scale 2.1/5, GA: 1.5/5, p = 0.04). Tube retention rate was shorter in the LA group (at 15 months: GA:72%, LA:50%, p = 0.039). Two years post-TTI, there were no differences regarding QoL (OM-6 score; LA: 15.2/100, GA: 21.4/100, p = 0.18, and PedsQL score; LA: 84.3/100, GA: 83.8/100, p = 0.90), parental satisfaction with anesthesia (GA: 4.5/5, LA: 4.6/5, p = 0.56), and postoperative complications (GA: 3/42, LA: 7/42, p = 0.18). CONCLUSIONS: TTI under LA in children is associated with an increased fear of health care professionals and shorter functionality of tympanostomy tubes as compared to GA. No difference was observed in long-term QoL, parental satisfaction, and complications rate. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level 3 Laryngoscope, 2024.

The Three W's of Acetaminophen In Children: Who, Why, and Which Administration Mode.

Acetaminophen is one of the oldest medications commonly administered in children. Its efficacy in treating fever and pain is well accepted among clinicians. However, the available evidence supporting the use of acetaminophen's different modes of administration remains relatively scarce and poorly known. This short report summarizes the available evidence and provides a framework to guide clinicians regarding a rational use of acetaminophen in children.

Morphine versus hydromorphone in pediatrics: a narrative review of latest indications and optimal use in neonates and children.

The management of pain in pediatrics is multimodal and includes non-pharmacologic and pharmacologic approaches. Opioids, and particularly morphine and hydromorphone, are frequently used to treat moderate-to-severe pain. The goals of this review are to describe the pharmacological characteristics of both drugs, to cover the latest evidence of their respective indications, and to promote their safe use in pediatrics. Morphine is the most studied opioid in children and is known to be safe and effective. Morphine and hydromorphone can be used to manage acute pain and are usually avoided when treating chronic non-cancer pain. Current evidence suggests that both opioids have a similar efficacy and adverse effect profile. Hydromorphone has not been studied in neonates but in some centers, it has been used instead of morphine for certain patients. In palliative care, the use of opioids is often indicated and their benefits extend beyond analgesia; indications include treatment of central neuropathic pain in children with severe neurologic impairment and treatment of respiratory distress in the imminently dying patients. The longstanding belief that the use of well-titrated opioids hastens death should be abandoned as robust evidence has shown the opposite. With the current opioid crisis, a responsible use of opioids should be promoted, including limiting the opioid prescription to the patient's anticipated needs, optimizing a multimodal analgesic plan including the use of non-pharmacological measures and non-opioid medications, and providing information on safe storage and disposal to patients and families. More data is needed to better guide the use of morphine and hydromorphone in children.

Canadian surveillance study of complex regional pain syndrome in children.

ABSTRACT: This study describes the minimum incidence of pediatric complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS), clinical features, and treatments recommended by pediatricians and pain clinics in Canada. Participants in the Canadian Paediatric Surveillance Program reported new cases of CRPS aged 2 to 18 years monthly and completed a detailed case reporting questionnaire from September 2017 to August 2019. Descriptive analysis was completed, and the annual incidence of CRPS by sex and age groupings was estimated. A total of 198 cases were reported to the Canadian Paediatric Surveillance Program, and 168 (84.8%) met the case definition. The minimum Canadian incidence of CRPS is estimated at 1.14/100,000 (95% confidence interval 0.93-1.35/100,000) children per year. Incidence was highest among girls 12 years and older (3.10, 95% confidence interval 2.76-3.44/100,000). The mean age of CRPS diagnosis was 12.2 years (SD = 2.4), with the mean time from symptom onset to diagnosis of 5.6 months (SD = 9.9) and no known inciting event for 19.6% of cases. Most cases had lower limb involvement (79.8%). Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (82.7%) and acetaminophen (66.0%) were prescribed more commonly than antiepileptic drugs (52.3%) and antidepressants (32.0%). Referrals most commonly included physical therapy (83.3%) and multidisciplinary pain clinics (72.6%); a small number of patients withdrew from treatment because of pain exacerbation (5.3%). Pain education was recommended for only 65.6% of cases. Treatment variability highlights the need for empiric data to support treatment of pediatric CRPS and development of treatment consensus guidelines.

Very Preterm Infants with Technological Dependence at Home: Impact on Resource Use and Family.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the impact of medical complexity among very preterm infants on health care resource use, family, and neurodevelopmental outcomes at 18 months' corrected age. METHODS: This observational cohort study of Canadian infants born < 29 weeks' gestational age in 2009-2011 compared infants with and those without medical complexity defined as discharged home with assistive medical technology. Health care resource use and family outcomes were collected. Children were assessed for cerebral palsy, deafness, blindness, and developmental delay at 18 months. Logistic regression analysis was performed for group comparisons. RESULTS: Overall, 466/2,337 infants (20%) needed assistive medical technology at home including oxygen (79%), gavage feeding (21%), gastrostomy or ileostomy (20%), CPAP (5%), and tracheostomy (3%). Children with medical complexity were more likely to be re-hospitalized (OR 3.6, 95% CI 3.0-4.5) and to require ≥2 outpatient services (OR 4.4, 95% CI 3.5-5.6). Employment of both parents at 18 months was also less frequent in those with medical complexity compared to those without medical complexity (52 vs. 60%, p < 0.01). Thirty percent of children with medical complexity had significant neurodevelopmental impairment compared to 13% of those without medical complexity (p < 0.01). Lower gestational age, lower birth weight, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, sepsis, and surgical necrotizing enterocolitis were associated with a risk of medical complexity. CONCLUSION: Medical complexity is common following very preterm birth and has a significant impact on health care use as well as family employment and is more often associated with neurodevelopmental disabilities. Efforts should be deployed to facilitate care coordination upon hospital discharge and to support families of preterm children with medical complexity.

Urinary tract infections in 1- to 3-month-old infants: ambulatory treatment with intravenous antibiotics.

OBJECTIVE: The goal was to examine the feasibility of outpatient management for 1- to 3-month-old infants with febrile urinary tract infections. METHODS: A cohort study was performed with all children 30 to 90 days of age who were evaluated for presumed febrile urinary tract infections in the emergency department of a tertiary-care pediatric hospital between January 1, 2005, and September 30, 2007. Patients were treated with intravenously administered antibiotics as outpatients in a day treatment center unless they met exclusion criteria, in which case they were hospitalized. RESULTS: Of 118 infants included in the study, 67 (56.8%) were admitted to the day treatment center and 51 (43.2%) were hospitalized. The median age of day treatment center patients was 66 days (range: 33-85 days). The diagnosis of urinary tract infection was confirmed for 86.6% of patients treated in the day treatment center. Escherichia coli was identified in 84.5% of urine cultures; 98.3% of isolates were sensitive to gentamicin. Six blood cultures (10.3%) yielded positive results, 5 of them for E coli. Treatment with intravenously administered antibiotics in the day treatment center lasted a mean of 2.7 days. The mean number of visits, including appointments for voiding cystourethrography, was 2.9 visits. The rate of parental compliance with day treatment center visits was 98.3%. Intravenous access problems were seen in 8.6% of cases. Successful treatment in the day treatment center (defined as attendance at all visits, normalization of temperature within 48 hours, negative control urine and blood culture results, if cultures were performed, and absence of hospitalization from the day treatment center) was obtained for 86.2% of patients with confirmed urinary tract infections. CONCLUSIONS: Ambulatory treatment of infants 30 to 90 days of age with febrile urinary tract infections by using short-term, intravenous antibiotic therapy at a day treatment center is feasible.