Role of Hypoxia in the Control of the Cell Cycle.

The cell cycle is an important cellular process whereby the cell attempts to replicate its genome in an error-free manner. As such, mechanisms must exist for the cell cycle to respond to stress signals such as those elicited by hypoxia or reduced oxygen availability. This review focuses on the role of transcriptional and post-transcriptional mechanisms initiated in hypoxia that interface with cell cycle control. In addition, we discuss how the cell cycle can alter the hypoxia response. Overall, the cellular response to hypoxia and the cell cycle are linked through a variety of mechanisms, allowing cells to respond to hypoxia in a manner that ensures survival and minimal errors throughout cell division.

Cell cycle progression in response to oxygen levels.

Hypoxia' or decreases in oxygen availability' results in the activation of a number of different responses at both the whole organism and the cellular level. These responses include drastic changes in gene expression, which allow the organism (or cell) to cope efficiently with the stresses associated with the hypoxic insult. A major breakthrough in the understanding of the cellular response to hypoxia was the discovery of a hypoxia sensitive family of transcription factors known as the hypoxia inducible factors (HIFs). The hypoxia response mounted by the HIFs promotes cell survival and energy conservation. As such, this response has to deal with important cellular process such as cell division. In this review, the integration of oxygen sensing with the cell cycle will be discussed. HIFs, as well as other components of the hypoxia pathway, can influence cell cycle progression. The role of HIF and the cell molecular oxygen sensors in the control of the cell cycle will be reviewed.

Chromatin and oxygen sensing in the context of JmjC histone demethylases.

Responding appropriately to changes in oxygen availability is essential for multicellular organism survival. Molecularly, cells have evolved intricate gene expression programmes to handle this stressful condition. Although it is appreciated that gene expression is co-ordinated by changes in transcription and translation in hypoxia, much less is known about how chromatin changes allow for transcription to take place. The missing link between co-ordinating chromatin structure and the hypoxia-induced transcriptional programme could be in the form of a class of dioxygenases called JmjC (Jumonji C) enzymes, the majority of which are histone demethylases. In the present review, we will focus on the function of JmjC histone demethylases, and how these could act as oxygen sensors for chromatin in hypoxia. The current knowledge concerning the role of JmjC histone demethylases in the process of organism development and human disease will also be reviewed.

The serine/arginine-rich protein SF2/ASF regulates protein sumoylation.

Protein modification by conjugation of small ubiquitin-related modifier (SUMO) is involved in diverse biological functions, such as transcription regulation, subcellular partitioning, stress response, DNA damage repair, and chromatin remodeling. Here, we show that the serine/arginine-rich protein SF2/ASF, a factor involved in splicing regulation and other RNA metabolism-related processes, is a regulator of the sumoylation pathway. The overexpression of this protein stimulates, but its knockdown inhibits SUMO conjugation. SF2/ASF interacts with Ubc9 and enhances sumoylation of specific substrates, sharing characteristics with already described SUMO E3 ligases. In addition, SF2/ASF interacts with the SUMO E3 ligase PIAS1 (protein inhibitor of activated STAT-1), regulating PIAS1-induced overall protein sumoylation. The RNA recognition motif 2 of SF2/ASF is necessary and sufficient for sumoylation enhancement. Moreover, SF2/ASF has a role in heat shock-induced sumoylation and promotes SUMO conjugation to RNA processing factors. These results add a component to the sumoylation pathway and a previously unexplored role for the multifunctional SR protein SF2/ASF.

Glucocorticoids inhibit GATA-3 phosphorylation and activity in T cells.

Glucocorticoid (GC) immunosuppression and anti-inflammatory action involve the regulation of several transcription factors (TFs). GCs inhibit the acute production of T-helper (Th) 1 and Th2 cytokines but ultimately favor a shift toward Th2 phenotype. GCs inhibit the transcriptional activity of T-bet Th1 TF by a transrepression mechanism. Here we analyze GC regulation of GATA-3, the master driver of Th2 differentiation. We found that GCs inhibit GATA-3 transcriptional activity. We demonstrate that this mechanism does not involve physical interaction between the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and GATA-3 or reduction of GATA-3 binding to DNA, as described previously for T-bet. Instead, GCs inhibit GATA-3 activity by inhibition of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase induced GATA-3 phosphorylation. GCs also inhibit GATA-3 mRNA and protein expression. Finally, GATA-3 inhibition affects the interleukin-5 gene, a central Th2 cytokine. The IC(50) of dexamethasone is 10 nM with a maximum effect at 100 nM. All inhibitory actions were blocked by the GR antagonist RU38486 (1 uM), proving the specificity of GR action. In view of the crucial role of GATA-3 in T-cell differentiation and inflammation, we propose that the mechanism of GATA-3 inhibition compared with that in T-bet may have relevant implications in understanding and modulating the anti-inflammatory and Th-regulatory properties of GCs.

Glucocorticoids in the regulation of transcription factors that control cytokine synthesis.

The interaction at different levels between intracellular signals elicited by cytokines and activated glucocorticoid receptors (GR) is essential for the regulation of immune responses. We describe different levels of interaction between glucocorticoids and cytokines which result in the induction or repression of gene transcription. These include the regulation of cytokine receptor expression, the molecular cross-talk between the GR and transcription factors (TFs) activated by cytokine signaling, the interaction with several signaling pathways and also posttranslational modifications of both GR and TFs. Also, an overview of the implications of chromatin remodeling in this interplay is discussed. The complexity of the intricate network involved in the interaction between GR and TFs is pivotal for the final outcome of cytokines biological action.

Differential gene expression in models of pituitary prolactin-producing tumoral cells.

Although several genes and signalling pathways have been identified as important effectors in the development of pituitary tumours, our understanding of pituitary tumorigenesis remains incomplete and is the focus of much current research. Use of the mRNA differential display technique in prolactinomas from D2-receptor knockout mice and in stable GH3 cell line clones with enhanced tumorigenicity in vivo has led to the identification of two genes that are involved in the pathogenic process--BMP-4 and RSUME. Bone morphogenetic protein-4 (BMP-4) has been found to have a crucial role in prolactinoma development and also in signalling crosstalk with oestrogens. In contrast, BMP-4 has an inhibitory role in corticotrophinomas. RSUME (RWD-containing sumoylation enhancer) was identified from a transformed lactosomatotrophic cell line that had increased tumorigenic and angiogenic potential. Expression of RSUME was induced under hypoxic conditions and it has a potential role during vascularization. The differential expression and action of BMP-4 in prolactinomas and corticotrophinomas highlights the importance of studying a gene with contrasting actions in two cell lineages of the same organ in order to understand the pituitary transformation process. Both BMP-4 and RSUME may be interesting targets for inhibiting steps involved in pituitary tumorigenesis.

The activated glucocorticoid receptor inhibits the transcription factor T-bet by direct protein-protein interaction.

Glucocorticoids (GCs) immunosuppression acts via regulation of several transcription factors (TF), including activating protein (AP)-1, NF-kappaB, and NFAT. GCs inhibit Th1 cytokines and promote a shift toward Th2 differentiation. Th1 phenotype depends on TF T-bet. In this study, we examined GC regulation of T-bet. We found that GCs inhibit T-bet transcriptional activity. We show that glucocorticoid receptor (GR) physically interacts with T-bet both in transfected cell lines and in primary splenocyte cultures with endogenous GR and T-bet. This interaction also blocks GR-dependent transcription. We show both in vitro and in vivo at endogenous binding sites that the mechanism underlying T-bet inhibition further involves reduction of T-bet binding to DNA. Using specific mutations of GR, we demonstrate that the first zinc finger region of GR is required for T-bet inhibition. GCs additionally inhibit T-bet both at mRNA and protein expression levels, revealing another layer of GR action on T-bet. Finally, we examined the functional consequences of GR/T-bet interaction on IFN-gamma, showing that GCs inhibit transcriptional activity of T-bet on its promoter. In view of the crucial role of T-bet in T cell differentiation and inflammation, we propose that GR inhibitory interaction with T-bet may be an important mechanism underlying the immunosuppressive properties of GCs.

[Molecular mechanisms of action of some immunosuppressive drugs]. / Mecanismos moleculares de acción de algunas drogas inmunosupresoras.

A number of natural and synthetic substances are used in the treatment of immunological disorders. The immunosuppressive drugs are widely utilized in clinical treatments of autoimmune disorders, in the prevention of transplant rejection as well as in non-autoimmune diseases such as allergy. The design of immunosuppressive therapies is based on the control of the exacerbated immune response. The pathophysiologic mean of this concept is to modulate the action of mononuclear cells, being T cells the main targets. Immunosuppressive agents have different molecular targets, and an important drawback in their use is that they also inhibit the normal immune system response. Depending on their mode of action, immunosuppressive drugs can be classified in four different groups: antinflammatory drugs of the corticosteroid family, inhibitors of the calcineurin pathway, cytototoxic or antiproliferative drugs and specific antibodies. In this article, we focus on the molecular action of immunosuppressive drugs such as steroids, cyclosporine, tacrolimus, azathioprine, cyclophosphamide, sirolimus, mycophenolate mofetil, leflunomide and specific antibodies, providing data to characterize and improve the use of these agents.

KDM2 Family Members are Regulated by HIF-1 in Hypoxia.

Hypoxia is not only a developmental cue but also a stress and pathological stimulus in many human diseases. The response to hypoxia at the cellular level relies on the activity of the transcription factor family, hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). HIF-1 is responsible for the acute response and transactivates a variety of genes involved in cellular metabolism, cell death, and cell growth. Here, we show that hypoxia results in increased mRNA levels for human lysine (K)-specific demethylase 2 (KDM2) family members, KDM2A and KDM2B, and also for Drosophila melanogaster KDM2, a histone and protein demethylase. In human cells, KDM2 family member's mRNA levels are regulated by HIF-1 but not HIF-2 in hypoxia. Interestingly, only KDM2A protein levels are significantly induced in a HIF-1-dependent manner, while KDM2B protein changes in a cell type-dependent manner. Importantly, we demonstrate that in human cells, KDM2A regulation by hypoxia and HIF-1 occurs at the level of promoter, with HIF-1 binding to the KDM2A promoter being required for RNA polymerase II recruitment. Taken together, these results demonstrate that KDM2 is a novel HIF target that can help coordinate the cellular response to hypoxia. In addition, these results might explain why KDM2 levels are often deregulated in human cancers.

Molecular understanding of cytokine-steroid hormone dialogue: implications for human diseases.

Highly sophisticated mechanisms confer upon the immune system the capacity to respond with a certain degree of autonomy. However, the final outcome of an adaptative immune response depends on the interaction with other systems of the organism. The immune-neuroendocrine systems have an intimate cross-communication, making possible a satisfactory response to environmental changes. Part of this interaction occurs through cytokines and steroid hormones. The last step of this crosstalk is at the molecular level. In this article we will focus on the physical and functional interrelationship between cytokine signaling pathway-activated transcription factors (TFs) and steroid receptors in different cell models, where the signals triggered by cytokines and steroid hormones have major roles: (1) the ligand-dependent-activated glucocorticoid receptor (GR) influence the genetic program that specifies lineage commitment in T helper (Th) cell differentiation. How posttranslational modifications of several TFs as well as nuclear hormone receptors could be implicated in the molecular crosstalk between the immune-neuroendocrine messengers is discussed. (2) glucocorticoid (GC) antagonism on the TCR-induced T cell apoptosis. (3) estrogen receptor/TGF-beta family proteins molecular interaction implicated on pituitary prolactinomas pathogenesis. The functional crosstalk at the molecular level between immune and steroids signals is essential to determine an integrative response to both mediators (which in the last instance results in a new gene activation/repression profile) and constitutes the ultimate integrative level of interaction between the immune and neuroendocrine systems.

Analysis of global RNA synthesis at the single cell level following hypoxia.

Hypoxia or lowering of the oxygen availability is involved in many physiological and pathological processes. At the molecular level, cells initiate a particular transcriptional program in order to mount an appropriate and coordinated cellular response. The cell possesses several oxygen sensor enzymes that require molecular oxygen as cofactor for their activity. These range from prolyl-hydroxylases to histone demethylases. The majority of studies analyzing cellular responses to hypoxia are based on cellular populations and average studies, and as such single cell analysis of hypoxic cells are seldom performed. Here we describe a method of analysis of global RNA synthesis at the single cell level in hypoxia by using Click-iT RNA imaging kits in an oxygen controlled workstation, followed by microscopy analysis and quantification.  Using cancer cells exposed to hypoxia for different lengths of time, RNA is labeled and measured in each cell. This analysis allows the visualization of temporal and cell-to-cell changes in global RNA synthesis following hypoxic stress.

RSUME enhances glucocorticoid receptor SUMOylation and transcriptional activity.

Glucocorticoid receptor (GR) activity is modulated by posttranslational modifications, including phosphorylation, ubiquitination, and SUMOylation. The GR has three SUMOylation sites: lysine 297 (K297) and K313 in the N-terminal domain (NTD) and K721 within the ligand-binding domain. SUMOylation of the NTD sites mediates the negative effect of the synergy control motifs of GR on promoters with closely spaced GR binding sites. There is scarce evidence on the role of SUMO conjugation to K721 and its impact on GR transcriptional activity. We have previously shown that RSUME (RWD-containing SUMOylation enhancer) increases protein SUMOylation. We now demonstrate that RSUME interacts with the GR and increases its SUMOylation. RSUME regulates GR transcriptional activity and the expression of its endogenous target genes, FKBP51 and S100P. RSUME uncovers a positive role for the third SUMOylation site, K721, on GR-mediated transcription, demonstrating that GR SUMOylation acts positively in the presence of a SUMOylation enhancer. Both mutation of K721 and small interfering RNA-mediated RSUME knockdown diminish GRIP1 coactivator activity. RSUME, whose expression is induced under stress conditions, is a key factor in heat shock-induced GR SUMOylation. These results show that inhibitory and stimulatory SUMO sites are present in the GR and at higher SUMOylation levels the stimulatory one becomes dominant.

Compound A, a dissociated glucocorticoid receptor modulator, inhibits T-bet (Th1) and induces GATA-3 (Th2) activity in immune cells.

BACKGROUND: Compound A (CpdA) is a dissociating non-steroidal glucocorticoid receptor (GR) ligand which has anti-inflammatory properties exerted by down-modulating proinflammatory gene expression. By favouring GR monomer formation, CpdA does not enhance glucocorticoid (GC) response element-driven gene expression, resulting in a reduced side effect profile as compared to GCs. Considering the importance of Th1/Th2 balance in the final outcome of immune and inflammatory responses, we analyzed how selective GR modulation differentially regulates the activity of T-bet and GATA-3, master drivers of Th1 and Th2 differentiation, respectively. RESULTS: Using Western analysis and reporter gene assays, we show in murine T cells that, similar to GCs, CpdA inhibits T-bet activity via a transrepressive mechanism. Different from GCs, CpdA induces GATA-3 activity by p38 MAPK-induction of GATA-3 phosphorylation and nuclear translocation. CpdA effects are reversed by the GR antagonist RU38486, proving the involvement of GR in these actions. ELISA assays demonstrate that modulation of T-bet and GATA-3 impacts on cytokine production shown by a decrease in IFN-γ and an increase in IL-5 production, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, through their effect favoring Th2 over Th1 responses, particular dissociated GR ligands, for which CpdA represents a paradigm, hold potential for the application in Th1-mediated immune disorders.

Intracellular molecular signaling. Basis for specificity to glucocorticoid anti-inflammatory actions.

The molecular interaction between hormonal and cytokine signals is crucial for providing specificity to their actions and represents a key step for understanding, at the molecular level, the ultimate response of physiological neuroendocrine-immune interactions. In this article we will describe new insights into the mechanisms underlying glucocorticoid-mediated anti-inflammatory action, focused on the regulation of immune-cytokine pathways. There are different levels of interaction between intracellular signals elicited by glucocorticoids and cytokines, with the final outcome being regulation of gene expression. One such interaction involves the molecular cross-talk between the activated glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and transcription factors implicated in the regulation of cytokine synthesis and function. This interaction results in the regulation of gene transcription, as we will illustrate with the helper T (Th)1 and Th2 transcription factors T-bet and GATA-3, respectively, implicated in the outcome of specific adaptive immune responses. A further level of mutual regulation is the posttranslational modification of GR by the ubiquitin-proteasome and sumoylation systems. These posttranslational modifications regulate GR activity and will be discussed for the small ubiquitin-related modifier (SUMO) pathway and its enhancer RWD RING finger-containing proteins, WD-repeat-containing proteins, and yeast DEAD (DEXD)-like helicases-containing sumoylation enhancer (RSUME). The impact of posttranslational modifications on inflammatory pathways, such as nuclear factor-kappabeta and regulated cytokines, will also be discussed.

Mecanismos moleculares de acción de algunas drogas inmunosupresoras / Molecular mechanisms of action of some immunosuppresive drugs

Los tratamientos utilizados para desordenes inmunológicos son de origen empírico, utilizando drogas inmunosupresoras identificadas a través de la selección de un gran número de compuestos naturales y sintéticos. Las drogas inmunosupresoras son ampliamente utilizadas en tratamientos clínicos de desordenes autoinmunes, en la prevención de rechazo a transplantes así como también en desordenes de carácter no autoinmune tales como las alergias. El diseño de las terapias inmunosupresoras está basado en controlar una respuesta inmune exacerbada. La base fisiopatológica de este concepto es en modular la acción de células mononucleares, siendo el principal punto de control las células T. Estas drogas inhiben la función normal de protección del sistema inmune llevando a la aparición de complicaciones en las terapias de inmunosupresión. Las drogas inmunosupresoras tienen diferentes blancos en el proceso de inmunidad celular. Según su modo de acción pueden clasificarse en cuatro categorías: drogas antinflamatorias de la familia de los corticosteroides, inmunosupresoras específicas inhibidoras de la calcineurina, citotóxicas o antiproliferativas y anticuerpos específicos. En este trabajo describimos el mecanismo de acción molecular de agentes inmunosupresores tales como, esteroides, ciclosporina, tacrolimo, azatioprina, ciclofosfamida, sirolimus, mofetil mecofenolato, leflunomida y anticuerpos específicos, para contribuir a la comprensión de cómo utilizar y mejorar estos agentes.

A number of natural and synthetic substances are used in the treatment of immunological disorders. The immunosuppressive drugs are widely utilized in clinical treatments of autoimmune disorders, in the prevention of transplant rejection as well as in non-autoimmune diseases such as allergy. The design of immunosuppressive therapies is based on the control of the exacerbated immune response. The pathophysiologic mean of this concept is to modulate the action of mononuclear cells, being T cells the main targets. Immunosuppressive agents have different molecular targets, and an important drawback in their use is that they also inhibit the normal immune system response. Depending on their mode of action, immunosuppressive drugs can be classified in four different groups: antinflammatory drugs of the corticosteroid family, inhibitors of the calcineurin pathway, cytototoxic or antiproliferative drugs and specific antibodies. In this article, we focus on the molecular action of immunosuppressive drugs such as steroids, cyclosporine, tacrolimus, azathioprine, cyclophosphamide, sirolimus, mycophenolate mofetil, leflunomide and specific antibodies, providing data to characterize and improve the use of these agents.