Correction to: Advancing Pharmacotherapy Development from Preclinical Animal Studies.

In the 7th line from the bottom of the Abstract the word nociception appears incorrect.

Advancing Pharmacotherapy Development from Preclinical Animal Studies.

Animal models provide rapid, inexpensive assessments of an investigational drug's therapeutic potential. Ideally, they support the plausibility of therapeutic efficacy and provide a rationale for further investigation. Here, I discuss how the absence of clear effective-ineffective categories for alcohol use disorder (AUD) medications and biases in the clinical and preclinical literature affect the development of predictive preclinical alcohol dependence (AD) models. Invoking the analogical argument concept from the philosophy of science field, I discuss how models of excessive alcohol drinking support the plausibility of clinical pharmacotherapy effects. Even though these models are not likely be completely discriminative, they are sensitive to clinically effective medications and have revealed dozens of novel medication targets. In that context, I discuss recent preclinical work on GLP-1 receptor agonists, phosphodiesterase inhibitors, glucocorticoid receptor antagonists, nociception agonists and antagonists, and CRF1 antagonists. Clinically approved medications are available for each of these drug classes. I conclude by advocating a translational approach in which drugs are evaluated highly congruent preclinical models and human laboratory studies. Once translation is established, I suggest the burden is to develop hypothesis-based therapeutic interventions maximizing the impact of the confirmed pharmacotherapeutic effects in the context of additional variables falling outside the model.

Sex and the Lab: An Alcohol-Focused Commentary on the NIH Initiative to Balance Sex in Cell and Animal Studies.

In May 2014, Dr. Francis Collins, the director of U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH), and Dr. Janine Clayton, the director of the U.S. National Institutes of Health Office of Research on Women's Health, published a commentary in the journal Nature announcing new policies to ensure that preclinical research funded by the NIH considers both males and females. While these policies are still developing, they have already generated great interest by the scientific community and triggered both criticism and applause. This review provides a description and interpretation of the NIH guidelines, and it traces the history that led to their implementation. As expected, this NIH initiative generated some anxiety in the scientific community. The use of female animals in the investigation of basic mechanisms is perceived to increase variability in the results, and the use of both sexes has been claimed to slow the pace of scientific discoveries and to increase the cost at a time characterized by declining research support. This review discusses issues related to the study of sex as a biological variable (SABV) in alcohol studies and provides examples of how researchers have successfully addressed some of them. A practical strategy is provided to include both sexes in biomedical research while maintaining control of the research direction. The inclusion of sex as an important biological variable in experimental design, analysis, and reporting of preclinical alcohol research is likely to lead to a better understanding of alcohol pharmacology and the development of alcohol use disorder, may promote drug discovery for new pharmacotherapies by increasing scientific rigor, and may provide clinical benefit to women's health. This review aims to promote the understanding of the NIH's SABV guidelines and to provide alcohol researchers with a theoretical and practical framework for working with both sexes in preclinical research.

Ibudilast reduces alcohol drinking in multiple animal models of alcohol dependence.

Neuroinflammatory signaling pathways in the central nervous system are of current interest as potential pharmacotherapy targets for alcohol dependence. In this study, we examined the ability of ibudilast, a non-selective phosphodiesterase inhibitor, to reduce alcohol drinking and relapse in alcohol-preferring P rats, high-alcohol drinking HAD1 rats, and in mice made dependent on alcohol through cycles of alcohol vapor exposure. When administered twice daily, ibudilast reduced alcohol drinking in rats by approximately 50% and reduced drinking by alcohol-dependent mice at doses which had no effect in non-dependent mice. These findings support the viability of ibudilast as a possible treatment for alcohol dependence.

Medications development to treat alcohol dependence: a vision for the next decade.

More than 76 million people world-wide are estimated to have diagnosable alcohol use disorders (AUDs) (alcohol abuse or dependence), making these disorders a major global health problem. Pharmacotherapy offers promising means for treating AUDs, and significant progress has been made in the past 20 years. The US Food and Drug Administration approved three of the four medications for alcoholism in the last two decades. Unfortunately, these medications do not work for everyone, prompting the need for a personalized approach to optimize clinical benefit or more efficacious medications that can treat a wider range of patients, or both. To promote global health, the potential reorganization of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) must continue to support the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism's (NIAAA's) vision of ensuring the development and delivery of new and more efficacious medications to treat AUDs in the coming decade. To achieve this objective, the NIAAA Medications Development Team has identified three fundamental long-range goals: (1) to make the drug development process more efficient; (2) to identify more efficacious medications, personalize treatment approaches, or both; and (3) to facilitate the implementation and adaptation of medications in real-world treatment settings. These goals will be carried out through seven key objectives. This paper describes those objectives in terms of rationale and strategy. Successful implementation of these objectives will result in the development of more efficacious and safe medications, provide a greater selection of therapy options and ultimately lessen the impact of this devastating disorder.

Acute withdrawal, protracted abstinence and negative affect in alcoholism: are they linked?

The role of withdrawal-related phenomena in the development and maintenance of alcohol addiction remains under debate. A 'self-medication' framework postulates that emotional changes are induced by a history of alcohol use, persist into abstinence, and are a major factor in maintaining alcoholism. This view initially focused on negative emotional states during early withdrawal: these are pronounced, occur in the vast majority of alcohol-dependent patients, and are characterized by depressed mood and elevated anxiety. This concept lost popularity with the realization that in most patients, these symptoms abate over 3-6 weeks of abstinence, while relapse risk persists long beyond this period. More recently, animal data have established that a prolonged history of alcohol dependence induces more subtle neuroadaptations. These confer altered emotional processing that persists long into protracted abstinence. The resulting behavioral phenotype is characterized by excessive voluntary alcohol intake and increased behavioral sensitivity to stress. Emerging human data support the clinical relevance of negative emotionality for protracted abstinence and relapse. These developments prompt a series of research questions: (1) are processes observed during acute withdrawal, while transient in nature, mechanistically related to those that remain during protracted abstinence?; (2) is susceptibility to negative emotionality in acute withdrawal in part due to heritable factors, similar to what animal models have indicated for susceptibility to physical aspects of withdrawal?; and (3) to what extent is susceptibility to negative affect that persists into protracted abstinence heritable?

Medications for alcohol use disorders: An overview.

Patients who suffer from alcohol use disorders (AUDs) usually go through various socio-behavioral and pathophysiological changes that take place in the brain and other organs. Recently, consumption of unhealthy food and excess alcohol along with a sedentary lifestyle has become a norm in both developed and developing countries. Despite the beneficial effects of moderate alcohol consumption, chronic and/or excessive alcohol intake is reported to negatively affect the brain, liver and other organs, resulting in cell death, organ damage/failure and death. The most effective therapy for alcoholism and alcohol related comorbidities is alcohol abstinence, however, chronic alcoholic patients cannot stop drinking alcohol. Therefore, targeted therapies are urgently needed to treat such populations. Patients who suffer from alcoholism and/or alcohol abuse experience harmful effects and changes that occur in the brain and other organs. Upon stopping alcohol consumption, alcoholic patients experience acute withdrawal symptoms followed by a protracted abstinence syndrome resulting in the risk of relapse to heavy drinking. For the past few decades, several drugs have been available for the treatment of AUDs. These drugs include medications to reduce or stop severe alcohol withdrawal symptoms during alcohol detoxification as well as recovery medications to reduce alcohol craving and support abstinence. However, there is no drug that completely antagonizes the adverse effects of excessive amounts of alcohol. This review summarizes the drugs which are available and approved by the FDA and their mechanisms of action as well as the medications that are under various phases of preclinical and clinical trials. In addition, the repurposing of the FDA approved drugs, such as anticonvulsants, antipsychotics, antidepressants and other medications, to prevent alcoholism and treat AUDs and their potential target mechanisms are summarized.

Pharmacological treatment of alcohol dependence: target symptoms and target mechanisms.

Alcoholism is a major public health problem and resembles, in many ways, other chronic relapsing medical conditions. At least 2 separate dimensions of its symptomatology offer targetable pathophysiological mechanisms. Systems that mediate positive reinforcement by alcohol are likely important targets in early stages of the disease, particularly in genetically susceptible individuals. In contrast, long term neuroadaptive changes caused by chronic alcohol use primarily appear to affect systems mediating negative affective states, and gain importance following a prolonged history of dependence. Feasibility of pharmacological treatment in alcoholism has been demonstrated by a first wave of drugs which consists of 3 currently approved medications, the aldehyde dehydrogenase blocker disulfiram, the opioid antagonist naltrexone (NTX) and the functional glutamate antagonist acamprosate (ACM). The treatment toolkit is likely to be expanded in the near future. This will improve overall efficacy and allow individualized treatment, ultimately taking in account the patient's genetic makeup. In a second wave, early human efficacy data are available for the 5HT3 antagonist ondansetron, the GABA-B agonist baclofen and the anticonvulsant topiramate. The third wave is comprised of compounds predicted to be effective based on a battery of animal models. Using such models, a short list of additional targets has accumulated sufficient preclinical validation to merit clinical development. These include the cannabinoid CB1 receptor, receptors modulating glutamatergic transmission (mGluR2, 3 and 5), and receptors for stress-related neuropeptides corticotropin releasing factor (CRF), neuropeptide Y (NPY) and nociceptin. Once novel treatments are developed, the field faces a major challenge to assure their delivery to patients.

Development of medications for alcohol use disorders: recent advances and ongoing challenges.

During the past decade, efforts to develop medications for alcoholism have burgeoned. Three agents, disulfiram, naltrexone and acamprosate, are now approved in a large number of countries. Although many patients have benefited from existing medications, their effects are moderate, and some alcoholics fail to respond to them. A host of new agents are currently under active investigation. Critical barriers must be overcome to ensure that future efforts in the development of medications for alcohol use disorders reach full fruition. These challenges include: establishing key targets for drug discovery; validating animal and human screening models; and developing biomarkers to help predict treatment success. In addition, it is important to formulate methodological and statistical strategies to efficiently conduct alcohol pharmacotherapy trials; to specify genetic and phenotypic patient characteristics associated with efficacy and safety for lead compounds; to forge productive alliances among governmental agencies, the pharmaceutical industry and academic researchers to further drug development; and, ultimately and perhaps most difficult, to engage the practitioner community to incorporate medications into the alcohol treatment process.

Brain pathways to recovery from alcohol dependence.

This article highlights the research presentations at the satellite symposium on "Brain Pathways to Recovery from Alcohol Dependence" held at the 2013 Society for Neuroscience Annual Meeting. The purpose of this symposium was to provide an up to date overview of research efforts focusing on understanding brain mechanisms that contribute to recovery from alcohol dependence. A panel of scientists from the alcohol and addiction research field presented their insights and perspectives on brain mechanisms that may underlie both recovery and lack of recovery from alcohol dependence. The four sessions of the symposium encompassed multilevel studies exploring mechanisms underlying relapse and craving associated with sustained alcohol abstinence, cognitive function deficit and recovery, and translational studies on preventing relapse and promoting recovery. Gaps in our knowledge and research opportunities were also discussed.

Food choice in people with Prader-Willi syndrome: quantity and relative preference.

Two experiments were conducted to examine differences between people with Prader-Willi syndrome and an obese comparison group in choosing a larger quantity of food delivered after a delay (15, 30, or 60 seconds) or a small quantity of food delivered immediately. Individuals with Prader-Willi syndrome selected the larger food quantity. Choices by the obese comparison group tended to be equally divided between both options. Relative food preference influenced choosing the larger, delayed option in both groups. This effect appeared to be larger in the non-Prader-Willi syndrome group, but was not statistically significant. These results suggest perceived differences in food quantity may be an important determinant of food choice of people with Prader-Willi syndrome.

The role of residential homelikeness in promoting community participation by adults with mental retardation.

We tested the influence of (1) the homelike appearance of residences, (2) residential staff-members' attitudes about people with mental retardation and (3) Client IQ on the number of activities adults clients with mental retardation conducted in their community. We tested the hypothesis these three variables exerted their influence by promoting positive staff-member interactions with clients. This was assessed by measuring the duration of Staff-initiated Social Interactions with residential clients. In our initial path model, Residential Homelikeness, Positive Staff Attitudes and Client IQ had no significant direct effect on Community Activities. In the final model, however, Residential Homelikeness and Positive Staff Attitudes exerted a statistically significant influence on Staff-initiated Social Interactions with clients, which in turn, exerted a statistically significant influence on Community Activities. This model illustrated: (1) the nearly equal influence of Staff Attitudes and architectural characteristics on Staff-initiated Interactions; and (2) the role of Staff-initiated Interactions in mediating the influence of Residential Homelikeness on community participation by adults with developmental disabilities.

Neural mechanisms of pain and alcohol dependence.

An association between chronic pain conditions and alcohol dependence has been revealed in numerous studies with episodes of alcohol abuse antedating chronic pain in some people and alcohol dependence emerging after the onset of chronic pain in others. Alcohol dependence and chronic pain share common neural circuits giving rise to the possibility that chronic pain states could significantly affect alcohol use patterns and that alcohol dependence could influence pain sensitivity. The reward and emotional pathways that regulate drug/alcohol addiction also mediate chronic pain. For example, pain-evoked activation of brain learning and brain reward circuitry may modulate cortical processing of pain and central sensitization mediated by mesocorticolimbic circuitry. Imbalance and reorganization of amygdala-mPFC interactions may not only be important for persistent pain, but also for disorders characterized by the abnormal persistence of emotional-affective states such as drug and alcohol addiction. Further studies are necessary to understand how these neural circuits are regulated in comorbid conditions of alcoholism and chronic pain. In addition, long term alcohol use could induce pain symptoms and may exacerbate chronic pain arising from other sources. While prior studies have established a role of neuroendocrine stress axis mediators in alcohol abuse and neurotoxic effects, these studies have not explored the distinction between the individual impact of alcohol and stress hormones. Future studies should explore the mechanisms mediating the contribution of alcohol and stress axis hormones on pain, an important question in our understanding of the neurobiology of alcohol abuse and chronic pain.

Alcohol dependence as a chronic pain disorder.

Dysregulation of pain neurocircuitry and neurochemistry has been increasingly recognized as playing a critical role in a diverse spectrum of diseases including migraine, fibromyalgia, depression, and PTSD. Evidence presented here supports the hypothesis that alcohol dependence is among the pathologies arising from aberrant neurobiological substrates of pain. In this review, we explore the possible influence of alcohol analgesia and hyperalgesia in promoting alcohol misuse and dependence. We examine evidence that neuroanatomical sites involved in the negative emotional states of alcohol dependence also play an important role in pain transmission and may be functionally altered under chronic pain conditions. We also consider possible genetic links between pain transmission and alcohol dependence. We propose an allostatic load model in which episodes of alcohol intoxication and withdrawal, traumatic stressors, and injury are each capable of dysregulating an overlapping set of neural substrates to engender sensory and affective pain states that are integral to alcohol dependence and comorbid conditions such as anxiety, depression, and chronic pain.

Can experimental paradigms and animal models be used to discover clinically effective medications for alcoholism?

Evaluating medications in animal laboratory paradigms can reveal whether the compound is effective in an established alcoholism model, at clinically relevant doses and exposure conditions, when administered orally (or transdermally) and without serious limiting side effects. Positive outcomes constitute a possible discovery for relevance to alcoholism and, under favorable marketing conditions, encourage further development. Medication testing using animal models of alcoholism might also guide clinical testing by discriminating clinically effective from clinically ineffective compounds. This ability rests on whether there are tests or, more reasonably, batteries of tests having this discriminative ability. The present paper examines this possibility. Effects of naltrexone and acamprosate in animal paradigms which model behavioral aspects of alcoholism are reviewed and compared with the effects of compounds which have limited effects in alcoholics. It is not clear at present whether any single paradigm or combination of paradigms differentiates clinically effective from clinically limited compounds. Steps are suggested to improve the use of preclinical laboratory tests to predict which compounds are likely to be effective medications for reducing drinking and sustaining abstinence in human alcoholics.

Overlapping peptide control of alcohol self-administration and feeding.

This article represents the proceedings of a symposium at the 2003 annual meeting of the Research Society on Alcoholism in Fort Lauderdale, FL. The organizers and chairpersons were Mark Egli and Todd E. Thiele. The presentations were (1) Voluntary alcohol consumption is modulated by central melanocortin receptors, by Todd E. Thiele; (2) Central infusion of neuropeptide Y reduces alcohol drinking in alcohol-preferring P rats, by Robert B. Stewart and Nancy E. Badia-Elder; (3) The gut peptide cholecystokinin controls alcohol intake in Sardinian alcohol-preferring rats, by Nori Geary and Maurizio Massi; and (4) Hypothalamic galanin: a possible role in excess alcohol drinking, by Sarah F. Leibowitz and Bartley G. Hoebel.