Functional consequences of postnatal interventions in a mouse model of Fragile X syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is a leading genetic cause of autism and intellectual disability with cortical hyperexcitability and sensory hypersensitivity attributed to loss and hypofunction of inhibitory parvalbumin-expressing (PV) cells. Our studies provide novel insights into the role of excitatory neurons in abnormal development of PV cells during a postnatal period of inhibitory circuit refinement. METHODS: To achieve Fragile X mental retardation gene (Fmr1) deletion and re-expression in excitatory neurons during the postnatal day (P)14-P21 period, we generated CreCaMKIIa/Fmr1Flox/y (cOFF) and CreCaMKIIa/Fmr1FloxNeo/y (cON) mice, respectively. Cortical phenotypes were evaluated in adult mice using biochemical, cellular, clinically relevant electroencephalogram (EEG) and behavioral tests. RESULTS: We found that similar to global Fmr1 KO mice, the density of PV-expressing cells, their activation, and sound-evoked gamma synchronization were impaired in cOFF mice, but the phenotypes were improved in cON mice. cOFF mice also showed enhanced cortical gelatinase activity and baseline EEG gamma power, which were reduced in cON mice. In addition, TrkB phosphorylation and PV levels were lower in cOFF mice, which also showed increased locomotor activity and anxiety-like behaviors. Remarkably, when FMRP levels were restored in only excitatory neurons during the P14-P21 period, TrkB phosphorylation and mouse behaviors were also improved. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that postnatal deletion or re-expression of FMRP in excitatory neurons is sufficient to elicit or ameliorate structural and functional cortical deficits, and abnormal behaviors in mice, informing future studies about appropriate treatment windows and providing fundamental insights into the cellular mechanisms of cortical circuit dysfunction in FXS.

Astrocytic Ephrin-B1 Controls Excitatory-Inhibitory Balance in Developing Hippocampus.

Astrocytes are implicated in synapse formation and elimination, which are associated with developmental refinements of neuronal circuits. Astrocyte dysfunctions are also linked to synapse pathologies associated with neurodevelopmental disorders and neurodegenerative diseases. Although several astrocyte-derived secreted factors are implicated in synaptogenesis, the role of contact-mediated glial-neuronal interactions in synapse formation and elimination during development is still unknown. In this study, we examined whether the loss or overexpression of the membrane-bound ephrin-B1 in astrocytes during postnatal day (P) 14-28 period would affect synapse formation and maturation in the developing hippocampus. We found enhanced excitation of CA1 pyramidal neurons in astrocyte-specific ephrin-B1 KO male mice, which coincided with a greater vGlut1/PSD95 colocalization, higher dendritic spine density, and enhanced evoked AMPAR and NMDAR EPSCs. In contrast, EPSCs were reduced in CA1 neurons neighboring ephrin-B1-overexpressing astrocytes. Overexpression of ephrin-B1 in astrocytes during P14-28 developmental period also facilitated evoked IPSCs in CA1 neurons, while evoked IPSCs and miniature IPSC amplitude were reduced following astrocytic ephrin-B1 loss. Lower numbers of parvalbumin-expressing cells and a reduction in the inhibitory VGAT/gephyrin-positive synaptic sites on CA1 neurons in the stratum pyramidale and stratum oriens layers of KO hippocampus may contribute to reduced inhibition and higher excitation. Finally, dysregulation of excitatory/inhibitory balance in KO male mice is most likely responsible for impaired sociability observed in these mice. The ability of astrocytic ephrin-B1 to influence both excitatory and inhibitory synapses during development can potentially contribute to developmental refinement of neuronal circuits.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT This report establishes a link between astrocytes and the development of excitatory and inhibitory balance in the mouse hippocampus during early postnatal development. We provide new evidence that astrocytic ephrin-B1 differentially regulates development of excitatory and inhibitory circuits in the hippocampus during early postnatal development using a multidisciplinary approach. The ability of astrocytic ephrin-B1 to influence both excitatory and inhibitory synapses during development can potentially contribute to developmental refinement of neuronal circuits and associated behaviors. Given widespread and growing interest in the astrocyte-mediated mechanisms that regulate synapse development, and the role of EphB receptors in neurodevelopmental disorders, these findings establish a foundation for future studies of astrocytes in clinically relevant conditions.

Deletion of Fmr1 from Forebrain Excitatory Neurons Triggers Abnormal Cellular, EEG, and Behavioral Phenotypes in the Auditory Cortex of a Mouse Model of Fragile X Syndrome.

Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is a leading genetic cause of autism with symptoms that include sensory processing deficits. In both humans with FXS and a mouse model [Fmr1 knockout (KO) mouse], electroencephalographic (EEG) recordings show enhanced resting state gamma power and reduced sound-evoked gamma synchrony. We previously showed that elevated levels of matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) may contribute to these phenotypes by affecting perineuronal nets (PNNs) around parvalbumin (PV) interneurons in the auditory cortex of Fmr1 KO mice. However, how different cell types within local cortical circuits contribute to these deficits is not known. Here, we examined whether Fmr1 deletion in forebrain excitatory neurons affects neural oscillations, MMP-9 activity, and PV/PNN expression in the auditory cortex. We found that cortical MMP-9 gelatinase activity, mTOR/Akt phosphorylation, and resting EEG gamma power were enhanced in CreNex1/Fmr1Flox/y conditional KO (cKO) mice, whereas the density of PV/PNN cells was reduced. The CreNex1/Fmr1Flox/y cKO mice also show increased locomotor activity, but not the anxiety-like behaviors. These results indicate that fragile X mental retardation protein changes in excitatory neurons in the cortex are sufficient to elicit cellular, electrophysiological, and behavioral phenotypes in Fmr1 KO mice. More broadly, these results indicate that local cortical circuit abnormalities contribute to sensory processing deficits in autism spectrum disorders.

Abnormal development of auditory responses in the inferior colliculus of a mouse model of Fragile X Syndrome.

Sensory processing abnormalities are frequently associated with autism spectrum disorders, but the underlying mechanisms are unclear. Here we studied auditory processing in a mouse model of Fragile X Syndrome (FXS), a leading known genetic cause of autism and intellectual disability. Both humans with FXS and the Fragile X mental retardation gene (Fmr1) knockout (KO) mouse model show auditory hypersensitivity, with the latter showing a strong propensity for audiogenic seizures (AGS) early in development. Because midbrain abnormalities cause AGS, we investigated whether the inferior colliculus (IC) of the Fmr1 KO mice shows abnormal auditory processing compared with wild-type (WT) controls at specific developmental time points. Using antibodies against neural activity marker c-Fos, we found increased density of c-Fos+ neurons in the IC, but not auditory cortex, of Fmr1 KO mice at P21 and P34 following sound presentation. In vivo single-unit recordings showed that IC neurons of Fmr1 KO mice are hyperresponsive to tone bursts and amplitude-modulated tones during development and show broader frequency tuning curves. There were no differences in rate-level responses or phase locking to amplitude-modulated tones in IC neurons between genotypes. Taken together, these data provide evidence for the development of auditory hyperresponsiveness in the IC of Fmr1 KO mice. Although most human and mouse work in autism and sensory processing has centered on the forebrain, our new findings, along with recent work on the lower brainstem, suggest that abnormal subcortical responses may underlie auditory hypersensitivity in autism spectrum disorders.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are commonly associated with sensory sensitivity issues, but the underlying mechanisms are unclear. This study presents novel evidence for neural correlates of auditory hypersensitivity in the developing inferior colliculus (IC) in Fmr1 knockout (KO) mouse, a mouse model of Fragile X Syndrome (FXS), a leading genetic cause of ASD. Responses begin to show genotype differences between postnatal days 14 and 21, suggesting an early developmental treatment window.

Acute pharmacological inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase-9 activity during development restores perineuronal net formation and normalizes auditory processing in Fmr1 KO mice.

Individuals with Fragile X Syndrome (FXS) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) exhibit cognitive impairments, social deficits, increased anxiety, and sensory hyperexcitability. Previously, we showed that elevated levels of matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) may contribute to abnormal development of parvalbumin (PV) interneurons and perineuronal nets (PNNs) in the developing auditory cortex (AC) of Fmr1 knock-out (KO) mice, which likely underlie auditory hypersensitivity. Thus, MMP-9 may serve as a potential target for treatment of auditory hypersensitivity in FXS. Here, we used the MMP-2/9 inhibitor, SB-3CT, to pharmacologically inhibit MMP-9 activity during a specific developmental period and to test whether inhibition of MMP-9 activity reverses neural oscillation deficits and behavioral impairments by enhancing PNN formation around PV cells in Fmr1 KO mice. Electroencephalography (EEG) was used to measure resting state and sound-evoked electrocortical activity in auditory and frontal cortices of postnatal day (P)22-23 male mice before and one-day after treatment with SB-3CT (25 mg/kg) or vehicle. At P27-28, animal behaviors were tested to measure the effects of the treatment on anxiety and hyperactivity. Results show that acute inhibition of MMP-9 activity improved evoked synchronization to auditory stimuli and ameliorated mouse behavioral deficits. MMP-9 inhibition enhanced PNN formation, increased PV levels and TrkB phosphorylation yet reduced Akt phosphorylation in the AC of Fmr1 KO mice. Our results show that MMP-9 inhibition during early postnatal development is beneficial in reducing some auditory processing deficits in the FXS mouse model and may serve as a candidate therapeutic for reversing sensory hypersensitivity in FXS and possibly other ASDs.

Multielectrode array analysis of EEG biomarkers in a mouse model of Fragile X Syndrome.

Fragile X Syndrome (FXS) is a leading known genetic cause of intellectual disability with symptoms that include increased anxiety and social and sensory processing deficits. Recent EEG studies in humans with FXS have identified neural oscillation deficits that include increased resting state gamma power, increased amplitude of auditory evoked potentials, and reduced inter-trial phase coherence of sound-evoked gamma oscillations. Identification of comparable EEG biomarkers in mouse models of FXS could facilitate the pre-clinical to clinical therapeutic pipeline. However, while human EEG studies have involved 128-channel scalp EEG acquisition, no mouse studies have been performed with more than three EEG channels. In the current study, we employed a recently developed 30-channel mouse multielectrode array (MEA) system to record and analyze resting and stimulus-evoked EEG signals in WT vs. Fmr1 KO mice. Using this system, we now report robust MEA-derived phenotypes including higher resting EEG power, altered event-related potentials (ERPs) and reduced inter-trial phase coherence to auditory chirp stimuli in Fmr1 KO mice that are remarkably similar to those reported in humans with FXS. We propose that the MEA system can be used for: (i) derivation of higher-level EEG parameters; (ii) EEG biomarkers for drug testing; and (ii) mechanistic studies of FXS pathophysiology.

Beneficial effects of sound exposure on auditory cortex development in a mouse model of Fragile X Syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is the most common genetic cause of autism and intellectual disability. Fragile X mental retardation gene (Fmr1) knock-out (KO) mice display core deficits of FXS, including abnormally increased sound-evoked responses, and show a delayed development of parvalbumin (PV) cells. Here, we present the surprising result that sound exposure during early development reduces correlates of auditory hypersensitivity in Fmr1 KO mice. METHODS: Fmr1 KO and wild-type (WT) mice were raised in a sound-attenuated environment (AE) or sound-exposed (SE) to 14 kHz tones (5 Hz repetition rate) from P9 until P21. At P21-P23, event-related potentials (ERPs), dendritic spine density, PV expression and phosphorylation of tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB) were analyzed in the auditory cortex of AE and SE mice. RESULTS: Enhanced N1 amplitude of ERPs, impaired PV cell development, and increased spine density in layers (L) 2/3 and L5/6 excitatory neurons were observed in AE Fmr1 KO compared to WT mice. In contrast, developmental sound exposure normalized ERP N1 amplitude, density of PV cells and dendritic spines in SE Fmr1 KO mice. Finally, TrkB phosphorylation was reduced in AE Fmr1 KO, but was enhanced in SE Fmr1 KO mice, suggesting that BDNF-TrkB signaling may be regulated by sound exposure to influence PV cell development. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrate that sound exposure, but not attenuation, during early developmental window restores molecular, cellular and functional properties in the auditory cortex of Fmr1 KO mice, and suggest this approach as a potential treatment for sensory phenotypes in FXS.

Functional Consequences of Synapse Remodeling Following Astrocyte-Specific Regulation of Ephrin-B1 in the Adult Hippocampus.

Astrocyte-derived factors can control synapse formation and functions, making astrocytes an attractive target for regulating neuronal circuits and associated behaviors. Abnormal astrocyte-neuronal interactions are also implicated in neurodevelopmental disorders and neurodegenerative diseases associated with impaired learning and memory. However, little is known about astrocyte-mediated mechanisms that regulate learning and memory. Here, we propose astrocytic ephrin-B1 as a regulator of synaptogenesis in adult hippocampus and mouse learning behaviors. We found that astrocyte-specific ablation of ephrin-B1 in male mice triggers an increase in the density of immature dendritic spines and excitatory synaptic sites in the adult CA1 hippocampus. However, the prevalence of immature dendritic spines is associated with decreased evoked postsynaptic firing responses in CA1 pyramidal neurons, suggesting impaired maturation of these newly formed and potentially silent synapses or increased excitatory drive on the inhibitory neurons resulting in the overall decreased postsynaptic firing. Nevertheless, astrocyte-specific ephrin-B1 knock-out male mice exhibit normal acquisition of fear memory but enhanced contextual fear memory recall. In contrast, overexpression of astrocytic ephrin-B1 in the adult CA1 hippocampus leads to the loss of dendritic spines, reduced excitatory input, and impaired contextual memory retention. Our results suggest that astrocytic ephrin-B1 may compete with neuronal ephrin-B1 and mediate excitatory synapse elimination through its interactions with neuronal EphB receptors. Indeed, a deletion of neuronal EphB receptors impairs the ability of astrocytes expressing functional ephrin-B1 to engulf synaptosomes in vitro Our findings demonstrate that astrocytic ephrin-B1 regulates long-term contextual memory by restricting new synapse formation in the adult hippocampus.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT These studies address a gap in our knowledge of astrocyte-mediated regulation of learning and memory by unveiling a new role for ephrin-B1 in astrocytes and elucidating new mechanisms by which astrocytes regulate learning. Our studies explore the mechanisms underlying astrocyte regulation of hippocampal circuit remodeling during learning using new genetic tools that target ephrin-B signaling in astrocytes in vivo On a subcellular level, astrocytic ephrin-B1 may compete with neuronal ephrin-B1 and trigger astrocyte-mediated elimination of EphB receptor-containing synapses. Given the role EphB receptors play in neurodevelopmental disorders and neurodegenerative diseases, these findings establish a foundation for future studies of astrocyte-mediated synaptogenesis in clinically relevant conditions that can help to guide the development of clinical applications for a variety of neurological disorders.

Reduced perineuronal net expression in Fmr1 KO mice auditory cortex and amygdala is linked to impaired fear-associated memory.

Fragile X Syndrome (FXS) is a leading cause of heritable intellectual disability and autism. Humans with FXS show anxiety, sensory hypersensitivity and impaired learning. The mechanisms of learning impairments can be studied in the mouse model of FXS, the Fmr1 KO mouse, using tone-associated fear memory paradigms. Our previous study reported impaired development of parvalbumin (PV) positive interneurons and perineuronal nets (PNN) in the auditory cortex of Fmr1 KO mice. A recent study suggested PNN dynamics in the auditory cortex following tone-shock association is necessary for fear expression. Together these data suggest that abnormal PNN regulation may underlie tone-fear association learning deficits in Fmr1 KO mice. We tested this hypothesis by quantifying PV and PNN expression in the amygdala, hippocampus and auditory cortex of Fmr1 KO mice following fear conditioning. We found impaired tone-associated memory formation in Fmr1 KO mice. This was paralleled by impaired learning-associated regulation of PNNs in the superficial layers of auditory cortex in Fmr1 KO mice. PV cell density decreased in the auditory cortex in response to fear conditioning in both WT and Fmr1 KO mice. Learning-induced increase of PV expression in the CA3 hippocampus was only observed in WT mice. We also found reduced PNN density in the amygdala and auditory cortex of Fmr1 KO mice in all conditions, as well as reduced PNN intensity in CA2 hippocampus. There was a positive correlation between tone-associated memory and PNN density in the amygdala and auditory cortex, consistent with a tone-association deficit. Altogether our studies suggest a link between impaired PV and PNN regulation within specific regions of the fear conditioning circuit and impaired tone memory formation in Fmr1 KO mice.

Genetic Reduction of Matrix Metalloproteinase-9 Promotes Formation of Perineuronal Nets Around Parvalbumin-Expressing Interneurons and Normalizes Auditory Cortex Responses in Developing Fmr1 Knock-Out Mice.

Abnormal sensory responses associated with Fragile X Syndrome (FXS) and autism spectrum disorders include hypersensitivity and impaired habituation to repeated stimuli. Similar sensory deficits are also observed in adult Fmr1 knock-out (KO) mice and are reversed by genetic deletion of Matrix Metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) through yet unknown mechanisms. Here we present new evidence that impaired development of parvalbumin (PV)-expressing inhibitory interneurons may underlie hyper-responsiveness in auditory cortex of Fmr1 KO mice via MMP-9-dependent regulation of perineuronal nets (PNNs). First, we found that PV cell development and PNN formation around GABAergic interneurons were impaired in developing auditory cortex of Fmr1 KO mice. Second, MMP-9 levels were elevated in P12-P18 auditory cortex of Fmr1 KO mice and genetic reduction of MMP-9 to WT levels restored the formation of PNNs around PV cells. Third, in vivo single-unit recordings from auditory cortex neurons showed enhanced spontaneous and sound-driven responses in developing Fmr1 KO mice, which were normalized following genetic reduction of MMP-9. These findings indicate that elevated MMP-9 levels contribute to the development of sensory hypersensitivity by influencing formation of PNNs around PV interneurons suggesting MMP-9 as a new therapeutic target to reduce sensory deficits in FXS and potentially other autism spectrum disorders.

Translation-relevant EEG phenotypes in a mouse model of Fragile X Syndrome.

Identification of comparable biomarkers in humans and validated animal models will facilitate pre-clinical to clinical therapeutic pipelines to treat neurodevelopmental disorders. Fragile X Syndrome (FXS) is a leading known genetic cause of intellectual disability with symptoms that include increased anxiety, social and sensory processing deficits. Recent EEG studies in humans with FXS have identified neural oscillation deficits that include enhanced resting state gamma power and reduced inter-trial coherence of sound evoked gamma oscillations. To determine if analogous phenotypes are present in an animal model of FXS, we recorded EEGs in awake, freely moving Fmr1 knock out (KO) mice using similar stimuli as in the human studies. We report remarkably similar neural oscillation phenotypes in the Fmr1 KO mouse including enhanced resting state gamma power and reduced evoked gamma synchronization. The gamma band inter-trial coherence of neural response was reduced in both auditory and frontal cortex of Fmr1 KO mice stimulated with a sound whose envelope was modulated from 1 to 100 Hz, similar to that seen in humans with FXS. These deficits suggest a form of enhanced 'resting state noise' that interferes with the ability of the circuit to mount a synchronized response to sensory input, predicting specific sensory and cognitive deficits in FXS. The abnormal gamma oscillations are consistent with parvalbumin neuron and perineuronal net deficits seen in the Fmr1 KO mouse auditory cortex indicating that the EEG biomarkers are not only clinically relevant, but could also be used to probe cellular and circuit mechanisms of sensory hypersensitivity in FXS.

GLT-1-Dependent Disruption of CNS Glutamate Homeostasis and Neuronal Function by the Protozoan Parasite Toxoplasma gondii.

The immune privileged nature of the CNS can make it vulnerable to chronic and latent infections. Little is known about the effects of lifelong brain infections, and thus inflammation, on the neurological health of the host. Toxoplasma gondii is a parasite that can infect any mammalian nucleated cell with average worldwide seroprevalence rates of 30%. Infection by Toxoplasma is characterized by the lifelong presence of parasitic cysts within neurons in the brain, requiring a competent immune system to prevent parasite reactivation and encephalitis. In the immunocompetent individual, Toxoplasma infection is largely asymptomatic, however many recent studies suggest a strong correlation with certain neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders. Here, we demonstrate a significant reduction in the primary astrocytic glutamate transporter, GLT-1, following infection with Toxoplasma. Using microdialysis of the murine frontal cortex over the course of infection, a significant increase in extracellular concentrations of glutamate is observed. Consistent with glutamate dysregulation, analysis of neurons reveal changes in morphology including a reduction in dendritic spines, VGlut1 and NeuN immunoreactivity. Furthermore, behavioral testing and EEG recordings point to significant changes in neuronal output. Finally, these changes in neuronal connectivity are dependent on infection-induced downregulation of GLT-1 as treatment with the ß-lactam antibiotic ceftriaxone, rescues extracellular glutamate concentrations, neuronal pathology and function. Altogether, these data demonstrate that following an infection with T. gondii, the delicate regulation of glutamate by astrocytes is disrupted and accounts for a range of deficits observed in chronic infection.

Matrix metalloproteinase-9 deletion rescues auditory evoked potential habituation deficit in a mouse model of Fragile X Syndrome.

UNLABELLED: Sensory processing deficits are common in autism spectrum disorders, but the underlying mechanisms are unclear. Fragile X Syndrome (FXS) is a leading genetic cause of intellectual disability and autism. Electrophysiological responses in humans with FXS show reduced habituation with sound repetition and this deficit may underlie auditory hypersensitivity in FXS. Our previous study in Fmr1 knockout (KO) mice revealed an unusually long state of increased sound-driven excitability in auditory cortical neurons suggesting that cortical responses to repeated sounds may exhibit abnormal habituation as in humans with FXS. Here, we tested this prediction by comparing cortical event related potentials (ERP) recorded from wildtype (WT) and Fmr1 KO mice. We report a repetition-rate dependent reduction in habituation of N1 amplitude in Fmr1 KO mice and show that matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), one of the known FMRP targets, contributes to the reduced ERP habituation. Our studies demonstrate a significant up-regulation of MMP-9 levels in the auditory cortex of adult Fmr1 KO mice, whereas a genetic deletion of Mmp-9 reverses ERP habituation deficits in Fmr1 KO mice. Although the N1 amplitude of Mmp-9/Fmr1 DKO recordings was larger than WT and KO recordings, the habituation of ERPs in Mmp-9/Fmr1 DKO mice is similar to WT mice implicating MMP-9 as a potential target for reversing sensory processing deficits in FXS. Together these data establish ERP habituation as a translation relevant, physiological pre-clinical marker of auditory processing deficits in FXS and suggest that abnormal MMP-9 regulation is a mechanism underlying auditory hypersensitivity in FXS. SIGNIFICANCE: Fragile X Syndrome (FXS) is the leading known genetic cause of autism spectrum disorders. Individuals with FXS show symptoms of auditory hypersensitivity. These symptoms may arise due to sustained neural responses to repeated sounds, but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. For the first time, this study shows deficits in habituation of neural responses to repeated sounds in the Fmr1 KO mice as seen in humans with FXS. We also report an abnormally high level of matrix metalloprotease-9 (MMP-9) in the auditory cortex of Fmr1 KO mice and that deletion of Mmp-9 from Fmr1 KO mice reverses habituation deficits. These data provide a translation relevant electrophysiological biomarker for sensory deficits in FXS and implicate MMP-9 as a target for drug discovery.

Genetic removal of matrix metalloproteinase 9 rescues the symptoms of fragile X syndrome in a mouse model.

Fmr1 knock-out (ko) mice display key features of fragile X syndrome (FXS), including delayed dendritic spine maturation and FXS-associated behaviors, such as poor socialization, obsessive-compulsive behavior, and hyperactivity. Here we provide conclusive evidence that matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) is necessary to the development of FXS-associated defects in Fmr1 ko mice. Genetic disruption of Mmp-9 rescued key aspects of Fmr1 deficiency, including dendritic spine abnormalities, abnormal mGluR5-dependent LTD, as well as aberrant behaviors in open field and social novelty tests. Remarkably, MMP-9 deficiency also corrected non-neural features of Fmr1 deficiency-specifically macroorchidism-indicating that MMP-9 dysregulation contributes to FXS-associated abnormalities outside the CNS. Further, MMP-9 deficiency suppressed elevations of Akt, mammalian target of rapamycin, and eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E phosphorylation seen in Fmr1 ko mice, which are also associated with other autistic spectrum disorders. These findings establish that MMP-9 is critical to the mechanisms responsible for neural and non-neural aspects of the FXS phenotype.

Cofilin under control of ß-arrestin-2 in NMDA-dependent dendritic spine plasticity, long-term depression (LTD), and learning.

Dendritic spines are dynamic, actin-rich structures that form the postsynaptic sites of most excitatory synapses in the brain. The F-actin severing protein cofilin has been implicated in the remodeling of dendritic spines and synapses under normal and pathological conditions, by yet unknown mechanisms. Here we report that ß-arrestin-2 plays an important role in NMDA-induced remodeling of dendritic spines and synapses via translocation of active cofilin to dendritic spines. NMDAR activation triggers cofilin activation through calcineurin and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)-mediated dephosphorylation and promotes cofilin translocation to dendritic spines that is mediated by ß-arrestin-2. Hippocampal neurons lacking ß-arrestin-2 develop mature spines that fail to remodel in response to NMDA. ß-Arrestin-2-deficient mice exhibit normal hippocampal long-term potentiation, but significantly impaired NMDA-dependent long-term depression and spatial learning deficits. Moreover, ß-arrestin-2-deficient hippocampal neurons are resistant to Aß-induced dendritic spine loss. Our studies demonstrate unique functions of ß-arrestin-2 in NMDAR-mediated dendritic spine and synapse plasticity through spatial control over cofilin activation.

Looking forward to EphB signaling in synapses.

Eph receptors and their ligands ephrins comprise a complex signaling system with diverse functions that span a wide range of tissues and developmental stages. The variety of Eph receptor functions stems from their ability to mediate bidirectional signaling through trans-cellular Eph/ephrin interactions. Initially thought to act by directing repulsion between cells, Ephs have also been demonstrated to induce and maintain cell adhesive responses at excitatory synapses in the central nervous system. EphB receptors are essential to the development and maintenance of dendritic spines, which accommodate the postsynaptic sites of most glutamatergic excitatory synapses in the brain. Functions of EphB receptors are not limited to control of the actin cytoskeleton in dendritic spines, as EphB receptors are also involved in the formation of functional synaptic specializations through the regulation of glutamate receptor trafficking and functions. In addition, EphB receptors have recently been linked to the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease and neuropathic pain, thus becoming promising targets for therapeutic interventions. In this review, we discuss recent findings on EphB receptor functions in synapses, as well as the mechanisms of bidirectional trans-synaptic ephrin-B/EphB receptor signaling that shape dendritic spines and influence post-synaptic differentiation.

Altered GnRH neuron and ovarian innervation characterize reproductive dysfunction linked to the Fragile X messenger ribonucleoprotein (Fmr1) gene mutation.

Introduction: Mutations in the Fragile X Messenger Ribonucleoprotein 1 (FMR1) gene cause Fragile X Syndrome, the most common monogenic cause of intellectual disability. Mutations of FMR1 are also associated with reproductive disorders, such as early cessation of reproductive function in females. While progress has been made in understanding the mechanisms of mental impairment, the causes of reproductive disorders are not clear. FMR1-associated reproductive disorders were studied exclusively from the endocrine perspective, while the FMR1 role in neurons that control reproduction was not addressed. Results: Here, we demonstrate that similar to women with FMR1 mutations, female Fmr1 null mice stop reproducing early. However, young null females display larger litters, more corpora lutea in the ovaries, increased inhibin, progesterone, testosterone, and gonadotropin hormones in the circulation. Ovariectomy reveals both hypothalamic and ovarian contribution to elevated gonadotropins. Altered mRNA and protein levels of several synaptic molecules in the hypothalamus are identified, indicating reasons for hypothalamic dysregulation. Increased vascularization of corpora lutea, higher sympathetic innervation of growing follicles in the ovaries of Fmr1 nulls, and higher numbers of synaptic GABAA receptors in GnRH neurons, which are excitatory for GnRH neurons, contribute to increased FSH and LH, respectively. Unmodified and ovariectomized Fmr1 nulls have increased LH pulse frequency, suggesting that Fmr1 nulls exhibit hyperactive GnRH neurons, regardless of the ovarian feedback. Conclusion: These results reveal Fmr1 function in the regulation of GnRH neuron secretion, and point to the role of GnRH neurons, in addition to the ovarian innervation, in the etiology of Fmr1-mediated reproductive disorders.

An iPSC-derived astrocyte model of fragile X syndrome exhibits dysregulated cholesterol homeostasis.

Cholesterol is an essential membrane structural component and steroid hormone precursor, and is involved in numerous signaling processes. Astrocytes regulate brain cholesterol homeostasis and they supply cholesterol to the needs of neurons. ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) is the main cholesterol efflux transporter in astrocytes. Here we show dysregulated cholesterol homeostasis in astrocytes generated from human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) derived from males with fragile X syndrome (FXS), which is the most common cause of inherited intellectual disability. ABCA1 levels are reduced in FXS human and mouse astrocytes when compared with controls. Accumulation of cholesterol associates with increased desmosterol and polyunsaturated phospholipids in the lipidome of FXS mouse astrocytes. Abnormal astrocytic responses to cytokine exposure together with altered anti-inflammatory and cytokine profiles of human FXS astrocyte secretome suggest contribution of inflammatory factors to altered cholesterol homeostasis. Our results demonstrate changes of astrocytic lipid metabolism, which can critically regulate membrane properties and affect cholesterol transport in FXS astrocytes, providing target for therapy in FXS.

EphA4 targeting agents protect motor neurons from cell death induced by amyotrophic lateral sclerosis -astrocytes.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a degenerative disease that progressively destroys motor neurons (MNs). Earlier studies identified EphA4, a receptor tyrosine kinase, as a possible disease-modifying gene. The complex interplay between the EphA4 receptor and its ephrin ligands in motor neurons and astrocytes has not yet been fully elucidated and includes a putative pro-apoptotic activity of the unbound receptor compared to ephrin-bound receptor. We recently reported that astrocytes from patients with ALS induce cell death in co-cultured MNs. Here we found that first-generation synthetic EphA4 agonistic agent 123C4, effectively protected MNs when co-cultured with reactive astrocytes from patients with ALS from multiple subgroups (sALS and mutant SOD1). Newer generation and more potent EphA4 agonistic agents 150D4, 150E8, and 150E7 provided effective protection at a lower therapeutic dose. Combined, the data suggest that the development of EphA4 agonistic agents provides potentially a promising therapeutic strategy for patients with ALS.

Cortical interneurons in autism.

The mechanistic underpinnings of autism remain a subject of debate and controversy. Why do individuals with autism share an overlapping set of atypical behaviors and symptoms, despite having different genetic and environmental risk factors? A major challenge in developing new therapies for autism has been the inability to identify convergent neural phenotypes that could explain the common set of symptoms that result in the diagnosis. Although no striking macroscopic neuropathological changes have been identified in autism, there is growing evidence that inhibitory interneurons (INs) play an important role in its neural basis. In this Review, we evaluate and interpret this evidence, focusing on recent findings showing reduced density and activity of the parvalbumin class of INs. We discuss the need for additional studies that investigate how genes and the environment interact to change the developmental trajectory of INs, permanently altering their numbers, connectivity and circuit engagement.