NLR surveillance of pathogen interference with hormone receptors induces immunity.

Phytohormone signalling pathways have an important role in defence against pathogens mediated by cell-surface pattern recognition receptors and intracellular nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat class immune receptors1,2 (NLR). Pathogens have evolved counter-defence strategies to manipulate phytohormone signalling pathways to dampen immunity and promote virulence3. However, little is known about the surveillance of pathogen interference of phytohormone signalling by the plant innate immune system. The pepper (Capsicum chinense) NLR Tsw, which recognizes the effector nonstructural protein NSs encoded by tomato spotted wilt orthotospovirus (TSWV), contains an unusually large leucine-rich repeat (LRR) domain. Structural modelling predicts similarity between the LRR domain of Tsw and those of the jasmonic acid receptor COI1, the auxin receptor TIR1 and the strigolactone receptor partner MAX2. This suggested that NSs could directly target hormone receptor signalling to promote infection, and that Tsw has evolved a LRR resembling those of phytohormone receptors LRR to induce immunity. Here we show that NSs associates with COI1, TIR1 and MAX2 through a common repressor-TCP21-which interacts directly with these phytohormone receptors. NSs enhances the interaction of COI1, TIR1 or MAX2 with TCP21 and blocks the degradation of corresponding transcriptional repressors to disable phytohormone-mediated host immunity to the virus. Tsw also interacts directly with TCP21 and this interaction is enhanced by viral NSs. Downregulation of TCP21 compromised Tsw-mediated defence against TSWV. Together, our findings reveal that a pathogen effector targets TCP21 to inhibit phytohormone receptor function, promoting virulence, and a plant NLR protein has evolved to recognize this interference as a counter-virulence strategy, thereby activating immunity.

NLRs derepress MED10b- and MED7-mediated repression of jasmonate-dependent transcription to activate immunity.

Plant intracellular nucleotide-binding domain, leucine-rich repeat-containing receptors (NLRs) activate a robust immune response upon detection of pathogen effectors. How NLRs induce downstream immune defense genes remains poorly understood. The Mediator complex plays a central role in transducing signals from gene-specific transcription factors to the transcription machinery for gene transcription/activation. In this study, we demonstrate that MED10b and MED7 of the Mediator complex mediate jasmonate-dependent transcription repression, and coiled-coil NLRs (CNLs) in Solanaceae modulate MED10b/MED7 to activate immunity. Using the tomato CNL Sw-5b, which confers resistance to tospovirus, as a model, we found that the CC domain of Sw-5b directly interacts with MED10b. Knockout/down of MED10b and other subunits including MED7 of the middle module of Mediator activates plant defense against tospovirus. MED10b was found to directly interact with MED7, and MED7 directly interacts with JAZ proteins, which function as transcriptional repressors of jasmonic acid (JA) signaling. MED10b-MED7-JAZ together can strongly repress the expression of JA-responsive genes. The activated Sw-5b CC interferes with the interaction between MED10b and MED7, leading to the activation of JA-dependent defense signaling against tospovirus. Furthermore, we found that CC domains of various other CNLs including helper NLR NRCs from Solanaceae modulate MED10b/MED7 to activate defense against different pathogens. Together, our findings reveal that MED10b/MED7 serve as a previously unknown repressor of jasmonate-dependent transcription repression and are modulated by diverse CNLs in Solanaceae to activate the JA-specific defense pathways.

DeepQs: Local quality assessment of cryo-EM density map by deep learning map-model fit score.

Cryogenic electron microscopy maps are valuable for determining macromolecule structures. A proper quality assessment method is essential for cryo-EM map selection or revision. This article presents DeepQs, a novel approach to estimate local quality for 3D cryo-EM density maps, using a deep-learning algorithm based on map-model fit score. DeepQs is a parameter-free method for users and incorporates structural information between map and its related atomic model into well-trained models by deep learning. More specifically, the DeepQs approach leverages the interplay between map and atomic model through predefined map-model fit score, Q-score. DeepQs can get close results to the ground truth map-model fit scores with only cryo-EM map as input. In experiments, DeepQs demonstrates the lowest root mean square error with standard method Fourier shell correlation metric and high correlation with map-model fit score, Q-score, when compared with other local quality estimation methods in high-resolution dataset (<=5 Å). DeepQs can also be applied to evaluate the quality of the post-processed maps. In both cases, DeepQs runs faster by using GPU acceleration. Our program is available at http://www.csbio.sjtu.edu.cn/bioinf/DeepQs for academic use.

Interspecies/Intergroup Complementation of Orthotospovirus Replication and Movement through Reverse Genetics Systems.

Orthotospoviruses, the plant-infecting bunyaviruses, cause serious diseases in agronomic crops and pose major threats to global food security. The family of Tospoviridae contains more than 30 members that are classified into two geographic groups, American-type and Euro/Asian-type orthotospovirus. However, the genetic interaction between different species and the possibility, during mixed infections, for transcomplementation of gene functions by orthotospoviruses from different geographic groups remains underexplored. In this study, minireplicon-based reverse genetics (RG) systems have been established for Impatiens necrotic spot virus (INSV) (an American-type orthotospovirus) and for Calla lily chlorotic spot virus and Tomato zonate spot virus (CCSV and TZSV) (two representative Euro/Asian orthotospoviruses). Together with the earlier established RG system for Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV), a type species of the Orthotospovirus American-clade, viral replicase/movement proteins were exchanged and analyzed on interspecies transcomplementation. Whereas the homologous RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) and nucleocapsid (N) protein supported the replication of orthotospoviruses from both geographic groups, heterologous combinations of RdRp from one group and N from the other group were unable to support the replication of viruses from both groups. Furthermore, the NSm movement protein (MP), from both geographic groups of orthotospoviruses, was able to transcomplement heterologous orthotospoviruses or a positive-strand Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) in their movement, albeit with varying efficiency. MP from Rice stripe tenuivirus (RSV), a plant-infecting bunyavirus that is distinct from orthotospoviruses, or MP from CMV also moves orthotospoviruses. Our findings gain insights into the genetic interaction/reassortant potentials for the segmented plant orthotospoviruses. IMPORTANCE Orthotospoviruses are agriculturally important negative-strand RNA viruses and cause severe yield-losses on many crops worldwide. Whereas the emergence of new animal-infecting bunyaviruses is frequently associated with genetic reassortants, this issue remains underexposed with the plant-infecting orthotospovirus. With the development of reverse genetics systems for orthotospoviruses from different geographic regions, the interspecies/intergroup replication/movement complementation between American- and Euro/Asian-type orthotospoviruses were investigated. Genomic RNAs from American orthotospoviruses can be replicated by the RdRp and N from those of Euro/Asia-group orthotospoviruses, and vice versa. However, their genomic RNAs cannot be replicated by a heterologous combination of RdRp from one geographic group and N from another geographic group. Cell-to-cell movement of viral entity is supported by NSm from both geographic groups, with highest efficiency by NSm from viruses belonging to the same group. Our findings provide important insights into the genetic interaction and exchange ability of viral gene functions between different species of orthotospovirus.

Antiviral RISC mainly targets viral mRNA but not genomic RNA of tospovirus.

Antiviral RNA silencing/interference (RNAi) of negative-strand (-) RNA plant viruses (NSVs) has been studied less than for single-stranded, positive-sense (+)RNA plant viruses. From the latter, genomic and subgenomic mRNA molecules are targeted by RNAi. However, genomic RNA strands from plant NSVs are generally wrapped tightly within viral nucleocapsid (N) protein to form ribonucleoproteins (RNPs), the core unit for viral replication, transcription and movement. In this study, the targeting of the NSV tospoviral genomic RNA and mRNA molecules by antiviral RNA-induced silencing complexes (RISC) was investigated, in vitro and in planta. RISC fractions isolated from tospovirus-infected N. benthamiana plants specifically cleaved naked, purified tospoviral genomic RNAs in vitro, but not genomic RNAs complexed with viral N protein. In planta RISC complexes, activated by a tobacco rattle virus (TRV) carrying tospovirus NSs or Gn gene fragments, mainly targeted the corresponding viral mRNAs and hardly genomic (viral and viral-complementary strands) RNA assembled into RNPs. In contrast, for the (+)ssRNA cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), RISC complexes, activated by TRV carrying CMV 2a or 2b gene fragments, targeted CMV genomic RNA. Altogether, the results indicated that antiviral RNAi primarily targets tospoviral mRNAs whilst their genomic RNA is well protected in RNPs against RISC-mediated cleavage. Considering the important role of RNPs in the replication cycle of all NSVs, the findings made in this study are likely applicable to all viruses belonging to this group.

A novel approach to achieving more efficient production of the mature form of human IL-37 in plants.

Interleukin-37 is a newly discovered cytokine that plays a pivotal role in suppressing innate inflammation and acquired immunity. We have recently expressed both the mature(mat-) and pro-forms of human IL-37b in plants and demonstrated that while both forms of the plant-made hIL-37b are functional, pmat-hIL37b exhibited significantly greater activity than ppro-IL-37b. Compared to ppro-hIL-37b, on the other hand, the expression level of pmat-hIL-37b was substantially lower (100.5 µg versus 1.05 µg/g fresh leaf mass or 1% versus 0.01% TSP). Since the difference between ppro-hIL-37b and pmat-hIL-37b is that ppro-hIL-37b contains a signal sequence not cleavable by plant cells, we reasoned that this signal sequence would play a key role in stabilizing the ppro-hIL-37b protein. Here, we describe a novel approach to enhancing pmat-hIL-37b production in plants based on incorporation of a gene sequence encoding tobacco etch virus (TEV) protease between the signal peptide and the mature hIL-37b, including a TEV cleavage site at the C-termini of TEV protease. The rationale is that when expressed as a sp-TEV-matIL-37b fusion protein, the stabilizing properties of the signal peptide of pro-hIL-37b will be awarded to its fusion partners, resulting in increased yield of target proteins. The fusion protein is then expected to cleave itself in vivo to yield a mature pmat-hIL-37b. Indeed, when a sp-TEV-matIL-37b fusion gene was expressed in stable-transformed plants, a prominent band corresponding to dimeric pmat-hIL-37b was detected, with expression yields reaching 42.5 µg/g fresh leaf mass in the best expression lines. Bioassays demonstrated that plant-made mature pmat-hIL-37b is functional.

Rescue of tomato spotted wilt virus entirely from complementary DNA clones.

Negative-stranded/ambisense RNA viruses (NSVs) include not only dangerous pathogens of medical importance but also serious plant pathogens of agronomic importance. Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) is one of the most important plant NSVs, infecting more than 1,000 plant species, and poses major threats to global food security. The segmented negative-stranded/ambisense RNA genomes of TSWV, however, have been a major obstacle to molecular genetic manipulation. In this study, we report the complete recovery of infectious TSWV entirely from complementary DNA (cDNA) clones. First, a replication- and transcription-competent minigenome replication system was established based on 35S-driven constructs of the S(-)-genomic (g) or S(+)-antigenomic (ag) RNA template, flanked by the 5' hammerhead and 3' ribozyme sequence of hepatitis delta virus, a nucleocapsid (N) protein gene and codon-optimized viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) gene. Next, a movement-competent minigenome replication system was developed based on M(-)-gRNA, which was able to complement cell-to-cell and systemic movement of reconstituted ribonucleoprotein complexes (RNPs) of S RNA replicon. Finally, infectious TSWV and derivatives carrying eGFP reporters were rescued in planta via simultaneous expression of full-length cDNA constructs coding for S(+)-agRNA, M(-)-gRNA, and L(+)-agRNA in which the glycoprotein gene sequence of M(-)-gRNA was optimized. Viral rescue occurred with the addition of various RNAi suppressors including P19, HcPro, and γb, but TSWV NSs interfered with the rescue of genomic RNA. This reverse genetics system for TSWV now allows detailed molecular genetic analysis of all aspects of viral infection cycle and pathogenicity.

Dendrocandin U from Dendrobium officinale Kimura et Migo Inhibits M1 Polarization in Alveolar Macrophage by Suppressing NF-κB Signaling Pathway.

Dendrobium officinale Kimura et Migo is a valuable and homologous medicine and food traditional Chinese medicine. Currently there are few studies on the anti-inflammatory activity of lipophilic components. The aim of this study was to explore the anti-inflammatory effect and mechanism of the lipophilic compounds in Dendrobium officinale. Six compounds were isolated and identified, including three bibenzyl compounds, dendrocandin U, dendronbibisline B, erianin, and three lignans, (-)-syringaresinol, (+)-syringaresinol-O-ß-D-glucopyranoside, 5-methoxy-(+)-isolariciresinol. Among them, dendronbibisline B and 5-methoxy-(+)-isolariciresinol were isolated from Dendrobium officinale for the first time. Besides, we found dendrocandin U, dendronbibisline B and (-)-syringaresinol exhibited the anti-inflammation to inhibit nitric oxide secretion induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)/interferon (IFN-γ) in MH-S cells. Furthermore, dendrocandin U could inhibit the expression of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), Cluster of Differentiation 86 (CD86), and reduce inflammatory morphological changes of macrophages. Meanwhile, we confirmed that the anti-inflammation mechanism of dendrocandin U was to inhibit M1 polarization by suppressing toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/recombinant myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88)/nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway. In this paper, dendrocandin U with significant anti-inflammatory activity was found from Dendrobium officinale, which could provide a basis for the study of its anti-inflammatory drugs.

Development of a Mini-Replicon-Based Reverse-Genetics System for Rice Stripe Tenuivirus.

Negative-stranded RNA (NSR) viruses include both animal- and plant-infecting viruses that often cause serious diseases in humans and livestock and in agronomic crops. Rice stripe tenuivirus (RSV), a plant NSR virus with four negative-stranded/ambisense RNA segments, is one of the most destructive rice pathogens in many Asian countries. Due to the lack of a reliable reverse-genetics technology, molecular studies of RSV gene functions and its interaction with host plants are severely hampered. To overcome this obstacle, we developed a mini-replicon-based reverse-genetics system for RSV gene functional analysis in Nicotiana benthamiana. We first developed a mini-replicon system expressing an RSV genomic RNA3 enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) reporter [MR3(-)eGFP], a nucleocapsid (NP), and a codon usage-optimized RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRpopt). Using this mini-replicon system, we determined that RSV NP and RdRpopt are indispensable for the eGFP expression from MR3(-)eGFP. The expression of eGFP from MR3(-)eGFP can be significantly enhanced in the presence of four viral suppressors of RNA silencing (VSRs), NSs, and P19-HcPro-γb. In addition, NSvc4, the movement protein of RSV, facilitated eGFP trafficking between cells. We also developed an antigenomic RNA3-based replicon in N. benthamiana. However, we found that the RSV NS3 coding sequence acts as a cis element to regulate viral RNA expression. Finally, we made mini-replicons representing all four RSV genomic RNAs. This is the first mini-replicon-based reverse-genetics system for monocot-infecting tenuivirus. We believe that the mini-replicon system described here will allow studies of the RSV replication, transcription, cell-to-cell movement, and host machinery underpinning RSV infection in plants. IMPORTANCE Plant-infecting segmented negative-stranded RNA (NSR) viruses are grouped into three genera: Orthotospovirus, Tenuivirus, and Emaravirus. Reverse-genetics systems have been established for members of the genera Orthotospovirus and Emaravirus. However, there is still no reverse-genetics system available for Tenuivirus. Rice stripe virus (RSV) is a monocot-infecting tenuivirus with four negative-stranded/ambisense RNA segments. It is one of the most destructive rice pathogens and causes significant damage to the rice industry in Asian countries. Due to the lack of a reliable reverse-genetics system, molecular characterizations of RSV gene functions and the host machinery underpinning RSV infection in plants are extremely difficult. To overcome this obstacle, we developed a mini-replicon-based reverse-genetics system for RSV in Nicotiana benthamiana. This is the first mini-replicon-based reverse-genetics system for tenuivirus. We consider that this system will provide researchers a new working platform to elucidate the molecular mechanisms dictating segmented tenuivirus infections in plants.

Stepwise artificial evolution of an Sw-5b immune receptor extends its resistance spectrum against resistance-breaking isolates of Tomato spotted wilt virus.

Plants use intracellular nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat immune receptors (NLRs) to recognize pathogen-encoded effectors and initiate immune responses. Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV), which has been found to infect >1000 plant species, is among the most destructive plant viruses worldwide. The Sw-5b is the most effective and widely used resistance gene in tomato breeding to control TSWV. However, broad application of tomato cultivars carrying Sw-5b has resulted in an emergence of resistance-breaking (RB) TSWV. Therefore, new effective genes are urgently needed to prevent further RB TSWV outbreaks. In this study, we conducted artificial evolution to select Sw-5b mutants that could extend the resistance spectrum against TSWV RB isolates. Unlike regular NLRs, Sw-5b detects viral elicitor NSm using both the N-terminal Solanaceae-specific domain (SD) and the C-terminal LRR domain in a two-step recognition process. Our attempts to select gain-of-function mutants by random mutagenesis involving either the SD or the LRR of Sw-5b failed; therefore, we adopted a stepwise strategy, first introducing a NSmRB -responsive mutation at the R927 residue in the LRR, followed by random mutagenesis involving the Sw-5b SD domain. Using this strategy, we obtained Sw-5bL33P/K319E/R927A and Sw-5bL33P/K319E/R927Q mutants, which are effective against TSWV RB carrying the NSmC118Y or NSmT120N mutation, and against other American-type tospoviruses. Thus, we were able to extend the resistance spectrum of Sw-5b; the selected Sw-5b mutants will provide new gene resources to control RB TSWV.

Cytoplasmic and nuclear Sw-5b NLR act both independently and synergistically to confer full host defense against tospovirus infection.

Plant intracellular nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat (NLR) receptors play critical roles in mediating host immunity to pathogen attack. We use tomato Sw-5b::tospovirus as a model system to study the specific role of the compartmentalized plant NLR in dictating host defenses against the virus at different infection steps. We demonstrated here that tomato NLR Sw-5b distributes to the cytoplasm and nucleus, respectively, to play different roles in inducing host resistances against tomato spotted wilt orthotospovirus (TSWV) infection. The cytoplasmic-enriched Sw-5b induces a strong cell death response to inhibit TSWV replication. This host response is, however, insufficient to block viral intercellular and long-distance movement. The nuclear-enriched Sw-5b triggers a host defense that weakly inhibits viral replication but strongly impedes virus intercellular and systemic movement. Furthermore, the cytoplasmic and nuclear Sw-5b act synergistically to dictate a full host defense of TSWV infection. We further demonstrated that the extended N-terminal Solanaceae domain (SD) of Sw-5b plays critical roles in cytoplasm/nucleus partitioning. Sw-5b NLR controls its cytoplasm localization. Strikingly, the SD but not coil-coil domain is crucial for Sw-5b receptor to import into the nucleus to trigger the immunity. The SD was found to interact with importins. Silencing both importin α and ß expression disrupted Sw-5b nucleus import and host immunity against TSWV systemic infection. Collectively, our findings suggest that Sw-5b bifurcates disease resistances by cytoplasm/nucleus partitioning to block different infection steps of TSWV. The findings also identified a new regulatory role of extra domain of a plant NLR in mediating host innate immunity.

A biological characteristic extrapolation of compound toxicity for different developmental stage species with toxicokinetic-toxicodynamic model.

Intraspecific difference in toxicity brings uncertainty to ecological risk assessment (ERA) and water quality criteria (WQC) of chemicals. Here, we compared intraspecies sensitivity to toxicants for Mesocyclops leuckarti of which toxicity data was obtained from published literatures, and zebrafish Danio rerio of which toxicity data was done in this study). Due to the internal concentration of chemicals not measured, simplified toxicokinetic-toxicodynamic (TK-TD) models were used, and we investigated whether TK-TD parameters estimated by Bayesian method might represent the differences in sensitivity between life-stages of 2 species. The results demonstrated that the difference in TK-TD parameters (background mortality m0, no effect concentration NEC, the killing rate ks, and the dominant rate kd) could represent the toxicity difference between life-stages of individual species. The TK-TD model could predict toxicity in individual species (Cyprinus carpio L., Enchytraeus crypticus, Folsomia candida, Hyalella Azteca) exposed to different chemical concentrations and successfully extrapolate toxicity between different life stages of Mesocyclops leuckarti and Danio rerio by scaling several TK-TD parameters. The modified TK-TD model on the extrapolation toxicity of chemicals between life stages for species could be useful for the ERA and for deriving and revising WQC for chemicals.

Transcriptome analysis of woodland strawberry (Fragaria vesca) response to the infection by Strawberry vein banding virus (SVBV).

BACKGROUND: Woodland strawberry (Fragaria vesca) infected with Strawberry vein banding virus (SVBV) exhibits chlorotic symptoms along the leaf veins. However, little is known about the molecular mechanism of strawberry disease caused by SVBV. METHODS: We performed the next-generation sequencing (RNA-Seq) study to identify gene expression changes induced by SVBV in woodland strawberry using mock-inoculated plants as a control. RESULTS: Using RNA-Seq, we have identified 36,850 unigenes, of which 517 were differentially expressed in the virus-infected plants (DEGs). The unigenes were annotated and classified with Gene Ontology (GO), Clusters of Orthologous Group (COG) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses. The KEGG pathway analysis of these genes suggested that strawberry disease caused by SVBV may affect multiple processes including pigment metabolism, photosynthesis and plant-pathogen interactions. CONCLUSIONS: Our research provides comprehensive transcriptome information regarding SVBV infection in strawberry.

Complete nucleotide sequence of strawberry vein banding virus Chinese isolate and infectivity of its full-length DNA clone.

BACKGROUND: Strawberry vein banding virus (SVBV) is a double-stranded DNA plant virus, which has been found in North America, Australia, Brazil, Japan, Europe and several provinces of China. Infected strawberry plants exhibit mild vein-banding symptoms and chlorosis along the veins. It is one of the most economically important diseases in Asiatic, European and North American strawberry-growing areas. FINDINGS: The complete genome of an SVBV Chinese isolate (SVBV-CN) was isolated and cloned from a naturally infected strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa cv. Sachinoka) sample found in Shenyang city of Liaoning province. Sequence analysis revealed a complete genome of 7864 nucleotides (nts) that indicated SVBV-CN was most closely related to SVBV from the United States (SVBV-US) with a sequence similarity of 85.8 %. Two major clades were identified based on phylogenetic analysis of the complete genome sequences of caulimoviruses. SVBV-CN clustered together with SVBV-US, whereas other caulimoviruses formed a separate branch. Agrobacterium-mediated inoculation of Fragaria vesca with an infectious clone of SVBV-CN results in systemic infection with distinct symptoms of yellowing bands along the main leaf veins. This suggests that the SVBV-CN infectious clone can recapitulate the symptoms observed in naturally infected strawberries, and therefore is likely the causal agent of the original disease observed in strawberries. Furthermore, strawberry plants inoculated with the infectious clone using vacuum infiltration developed symptoms with a very high infection rate of 86-100 % in 4-5 weeks post-inoculation. This compares to an infection rate of 20-40 % in 8-9 weeks post-inoculation using syringe-inoculation. CONCLUSIONS: The complete nucleotide sequence of SVBV from a naturally infected strawberry was determined. Agroinfiltration of strawberry plants using an infectious clone of SVBV-CN resulted in symptoms typically found in infected strawberries from Shenyang city of Liaoning province in China. This is the first report describing an infectious clone of SVBV-CN, and that vacuum infiltration can be potentially used as a new and highly efficient means for inoculation of strawberry plants.

GLUTATHIONE S-TRANSFERASE Genes IN THE RICE LEAFFOLDER, Cnaphalocrocis medinalis (LEPIDOPTERA: PYRALIDAE): IDENTIFICATION AND EXPRESSION PROFILES.

In insects, glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) play critical roles in the detoxification of various insecticides, resulting in insecticide resistance. The rice leaffolder, Cnaphalocrocis medinalis, is an economically important pest of rice in Asia. GST genes have not been largely identified in this insect species. In the present study, by searching the transcriptome dataset, 25 candidate GST genes were identified in C. medinalis for the first time. Of these, 23 predicted GST proteins fell into five cytosolic classes (delta, epsilon, omega, sigma, and zeta), and two were assigned to the "unclassified" subgroup. Real-time quantitative PCR analysis showed that these GST genes were differentially expressed in various tissues, including the midgut, Malpighian tubules, and fat body of larvae, and the antenna, abdomen, and leg of adults, indicating diversified functions for these genes. Transcription levels of CmGSTd2, CmGSTe6, and CmGSTe7 increased significantly in larvae following exposure to chlorpyrifos, suggesting that these GST genes could be involved in the detoxification of this insecticide. The results of our study pave the way to a better understanding of the detoxification system of C. medinalis.

A plant NLR receptor employs ABA central regulator PP2C-SnRK2 to activate antiviral immunity.

Defence against pathogens relies on intracellular nucleotide-binding, leucine-rich repeat immune receptors (NLRs) in plants. Hormone signaling including abscisic acid (ABA) pathways are activated by NLRs and play pivotal roles in defence against different pathogens. However, little is known about how hormone signaling pathways are activated by plant immune receptors. Here, we report that a plant NLR Sw-5b mimics the behavior of the ABA receptor and directly employs the ABA central regulator PP2C-SnRK2 complex to activate an ABA-dependent defence against viral pathogens. PP2C4 interacts with and constitutively inhibits SnRK2.3/2.4. Behaving in a similar manner as the ABA receptor, pathogen effector ligand recognition triggers the conformational change of Sw-5b NLR that enables binding to PP2C4 via the NB domain. This receptor-PP2C4 binding interferes with the interaction between PP2C4 and SnRK2.3/2.4, thereby releasing SnRK2.3/2.4 from PP2C4 inhibition to activate an ABA-specific antiviral immunity. These findings provide important insights into the activation of hormone signaling pathways by plant immune receptors.

Schisandrin A ameliorates increased pulmonary capillary endothelial permeability accompanied with sepsis through inhibition of RhoA/ROCK1/MLC pathways.

BACKGROUND: Sepsis is a systemic inflammatory response, and vascular leakage associated with acute lung injury (ALI) is an important pathophysiological process during sepsis. Schisandrin A (SchA) is a bioactive lignan which has been reported to have the anti-inflammatory effects in many studies, while whether SchA can ameliorate ALI-related vascular leakage caused by sepsis is unknown. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the role and the underlying mechanism of SchA in increase of pulmonary vascular permeability induced by sepsis. METHODS: The effect of SchA on pulmonary vascular permeability was examined in rat acute lung injury model. The effect of SchA on skin vascular permeability of mice was investigated through Miles assay. MTT assay was performed to detect the cell activity, and transwell assay was used to detect the effect of SchA on cell permeability. The effects of SchA on junction proteins and RhoA/ROCK1/MLC signaling pathway were manifested by immunofluorescence staining and western blot. RESULTS: The administration of SchA alleviated rat pulmonary endothelial dysfunction, relieved increased permeability in the mouse skin and HUVECs induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Meanwhile, SchA inhibited the formation of stress fibers, reversed the decrease of expression of ZO-1 and VE-cadherin. Subsequent experiments confirmed that SchA inhibited RhoA/ROCK1/MLC canonical pathway in rat lungs and HUVECs induced by LPS. Moreover, overexpression of RhoA reversed the inhibitory effect of SchA in HUVECs, which suggested that SchA protected the pulmonary endothelial barrier by inhibiting RhoA/ROCK1/MLC pathway. CONCLUSION: In summary, our results indicate that SchA ameliorates the increase of pulmonary endothelial permeability induced by sepsis through inhibition of RhoA/ROCK1/MLC pathway, providing a potentially effective therapeutic strategy for sepsis.

Seven undescribed compounds from the flower heads of Helianthus annuus L.

Seven undescribed compounds, namely, 4-hydroxy-3-(2'-hydroxy-3'-methyl-1'-butenyl) acetophenone-1'-O-ß-D-glucopyranoside (1), 4-hydroxy-3-((Z)-3'-hydroxy-3'-methyl-1'-butenyl) acetophenone-8-O-ß-D-glucopyranoside (2), 4,6-hydroxy-3-((Z)-3'-hydroxy-3'-methyl-1'-butenyl) acetophenone-8-O-ß-D-glucopyranoside (3), 4-hydroxy-3-((Z)-3'-hydroxy-3'-methyl-1'-butenyl) acetophenone-6-O-ß-D-glucopyranoside (4), 2-hydroxymethylimino-3,4-dimethyl-7-hydroxy-6-methyl ketone-2H-chromon (5), annuolide A-15-O-ß-D-glucopyranoside (6) and heliannuoside A (7), together with eighteen known compounds, were obtained from water extract of the flower heads of Helianthus annuus L. (Asteraceae). The structures of these compounds were elucidated based on spectroscopic analyses. Upon evaluation of the anti-inflammatory activity of compounds 1-9, 15-18, 21 and 24-25 by their effects on the release of NO in MH-S cells, compound 6 showed significant inhibition of NO secretion at 12.5 µM (P < 0.05) and 25 µM (P < 0.01) in a dose-dependent manner, and compound 18 showed inhibition of NO secretion at 25 µM (P < 0.05).

Developing Ecological Thresholds for Nitrogen and Phosphorus in the Haihe River Basin in China.

Many aquatic ecosystems are eutrophicated due to human inputs of nitrogen and phosphorus. Therefore, it is now considered important to establish nutrient criteria to prevent eutrophication. In this study, the water quality and biological data for 26 stations in the lower reaches of the Haihe River Basin were collected. The total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) ecological thresholds were derived from the threshold indicator taxa analysis (TITAN) and frequency distribution approach. The results showed that the TN threshold was 1.8 mg/L based on the TITAN and the TP threshold was 0.039 mg/L based on the frequency distribution approach. The TITAN also identified 29 indicator species of TN and 28 indicator species of TP. Based on these criteria, we found 73% sites with TN concentrations higher than the 1.8 mg/L. As for TP, 58% sites exceeded 0.039 mg/L. This study showed that most of the downstream areas of the Haihe River are subject to relatively serious disturbances. This finding could provide implications for identifying the water quality traits of and generating protection strategies for the Haihe River in Tianjin.