Natural Transformation Protein ComFA Exhibits Single-Stranded DNA Translocase Activity.

Natural transformation is one of the major mechanisms of horizontal gene transfer in bacterial populations and has been demonstrated in numerous species of bacteria. Despite the prevalence of natural transformation, much of the molecular mechanism remains unexplored. One major outstanding question is how the cell powers DNA import, which is rapid and highly processive. ComFA is one of a few proteins required for natural transformation in Gram-positive bacteria. Its structural resemblance to the DEAD box helicase family has led to a long-held hypothesis that ComFA acts as a motor to help drive DNA import into the cytosol. Here, we explored the helicase and translocase activity of ComFA to address this hypothesis. We followed the DNA-dependent ATPase activity of ComFA and, combined with mathematical modeling, demonstrated that ComFA likely translocates on single-stranded DNA from 5' to 3'. However, this translocase activity does not lead to DNA unwinding under the conditions we tested. Further, we analyzed the ATPase cycle of ComFA and found that ATP hydrolysis stimulates the release of DNA, providing a potential mechanism for translocation. These findings help define the molecular contribution of ComFA to natural transformation and support the conclusion that ComFA plays a key role in powering DNA uptake. IMPORTANCE Competence, or the ability of bacteria to take up and incorporate foreign DNA in a process called natural transformation, is common in the bacterial kingdom. Research in several bacterial species suggests that long, contiguous stretches of DNA are imported into cells in a processive manner, but how bacteria power transformation remains unclear. Our finding that ComFA, a DEAD box helicase required for competence in Gram-positive bacteria, translocates on single-stranded DNA from 5' to 3', supports the long-held hypothesis that ComFA may be the motor powering DNA transport during natural transformation. Moreover, ComFA may be a previously unidentified type of DEAD box helicase-one with the capability of extended translocation on single-stranded DNA.

Bacterial transformation: ComFA is a DNA-dependent ATPase that forms complexes with ComFC and DprA.

Pneumococcal natural transformation contributes to genomic plasticity, antibiotic resistance development and vaccine escape. Streptococcus pneumoniae, like many other naturally transformable species, has evolved sophisticated protein machinery for the binding and uptake of DNA. Two proteins encoded by the comF operon, ComFA and ComFC, are involved in transformation but their exact molecular roles remain unknown. In this study, we provide experimental evidence that ComFA binds to single stranded DNA (ssDNA) and has ssDNA-dependent ATPase activity. We show that both ComFA and ComFC are essential for the transformation process in pneumococci. Moreover, we show that these proteins interact with each other and with other proteins involved in homologous recombination, such as DprA, thus placing the ComFA-ComFC duo at the interface between DNA uptake and DNA recombination during transformation.

Leucine Suppresses α-Cell cAMP and Glucagon Secretion via a Combination of Cell-Intrinsic and Islet Paracrine Signaling.

Glucagon is critical for the maintenance of blood glucose, however nutrient regulation of pancreatic α-cells remains poorly understood. Here, we identified a role of leucine, a well-known ß-cell fuel, in the α-cell-intrinsic regulation of glucagon release. In islet perifusion assays, physiologic concentrations of leucine strongly inhibited alanine- and arginine-stimulated glucagon secretion from human and mouse islets under hypoglycemic conditions. Mechanistically, leucine dose-dependently reduced α-cell cAMP, independently of Ca2+, ATP/ADP, or fatty acid oxidation. Leucine also reduced α-cell cAMP in islets treated with somatostatin receptor 2 antagonists or diazoxide, compounds that limit paracrine signaling from ß/δ-cells. Studies in dispersed mouse islets confirmed an α-cell-intrinsic effect. The inhibitory effect of leucine on cAMP was mimicked by glucose, α-ketoisocaproate, succinate, and the glutamate dehydrogenase activator BCH and blocked by cyanide, indicating a mechanism dependent on mitochondrial metabolism. Glucose dose-dependently reduced the impact of leucine on α-cell cAMP, indicating an overlap in function; however, leucine was still effective at suppressing glucagon secretion in the presence of elevated glucose, amino acids, and the incretin GIP. Taken together, these findings show that leucine plays an intrinsic role in limiting the α-cell secretory tone across the physiologic range of glucose levels, complementing the inhibitory paracrine actions of ß/δ-cells.

Leucine suppresses glucagon secretion from pancreatic islets by directly modulating α-cell cAMP.

Objective: Pancreatic islets are nutrient sensors that regulate organismal blood glucose homeostasis. Glucagon release from the pancreatic α-cell is important under fasted, fed, and hypoglycemic conditions, yet metabolic regulation of α-cells remains poorly understood. Here, we identified a previously unexplored role for physiological levels of leucine, which is classically regarded as a ß-cell fuel, in the intrinsic regulation of α-cell glucagon release. Methods: GcgCreERT:CAMPER and GcgCreERT:GCaMP6s mice were generated to perform dynamic, high-throughput functional measurements of α-cell cAMP and Ca2+ within the intact islet. Islet perifusion assays were used for simultaneous, time-resolved measurements of glucagon and insulin release from mouse and human islets. The effects of leucine were compared with glucose and the mitochondrial fuels 2-aminobicyclo(2,2,1)heptane-2-carboxylic acid (BCH, non-metabolized leucine analog that activates glutamate dehydrogenase), α-ketoisocaproate (KIC, leucine metabolite), and methyl-succinate (complex II fuel). CYN154806 (Sstr2 antagonist), diazoxide (KATP activator, which prevents Ca2+-dependent exocytosis from α, ß, and δ-cells), and dispersed α-cells were used to inhibit islet paracrine signaling and identify α-cell intrinsic effects. Results: Mimicking the effect of glucose, leucine strongly suppressed amino acid-stimulated glucagon secretion. Mechanistically, leucine dose-dependently reduced α-cell cAMP at physiological concentrations, with an IC50 of 57, 440, and 1162 µM at 2, 6, and 10 mM glucose, without affecting α-cell Ca2+. Leucine also reduced α-cell cAMP in islets treated with Sstr2 antagonist or diazoxide, as well as dispersed α-cells, indicating an α-cell intrinsic effect. The effect of leucine was matched by KIC and the glutamate dehydrogenase activator BCH, but not methyl-succinate, indicating a dependence on mitochondrial anaplerosis. Glucose, which stimulates anaplerosis via pyruvate carboxylase, had the same suppressive effect on α-cell cAMP but with lower potency. Similarly to mouse islets, leucine suppressed glucagon secretion from human islets under hypoglycemic conditions. Conclusions: These findings highlight an important role for physiological levels of leucine in the metabolic regulation of α-cell cAMP and glucagon secretion. Leucine functions primarily through an α-cell intrinsic effect that is dependent on glutamate dehydrogenase, in addition to the well-established α-cell regulation by ß/δ-cell paracrine signaling. Our results suggest that mitochondrial anaplerosis-cataplerosis facilitates the glucagonostatic effect of both leucine and glucose, which cooperatively suppress α-cell tone by reducing cAMP.

ß-cell deletion of the PKm1 and PKm2 isoforms of pyruvate kinase in mice reveals their essential role as nutrient sensors for the KATP channel.

Pyruvate kinase (PK) and the phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) cycle play key roles in nutrient-stimulated KATP channel closure and insulin secretion. To identify the PK isoforms involved, we generated mice lacking ß-cell PKm1, PKm2, and mitochondrial PEP carboxykinase (PCK2) that generates mitochondrial PEP. Glucose metabolism was found to generate both glycolytic and mitochondrially derived PEP, which triggers KATP closure through local PKm1 and PKm2 signaling at the plasma membrane. Amino acids, which generate mitochondrial PEP without producing glycolytic fructose 1,6-bisphosphate to allosterically activate PKm2, signal through PKm1 to raise ATP/ADP, close KATP channels, and stimulate insulin secretion. Raising cytosolic ATP/ADP with amino acids is insufficient to close KATP channels in the absence of PK activity or PCK2, indicating that KATP channels are primarily regulated by PEP that provides ATP via plasma membrane-associated PK, rather than mitochondrially derived ATP. Following membrane depolarization, the PEP cycle is involved in an 'off-switch' that facilitates KATP channel reopening and Ca2+ extrusion, as shown by PK activation experiments and ß-cell PCK2 deletion, which prolongs Ca2+ oscillations and increases insulin secretion. In conclusion, the differential response of PKm1 and PKm2 to the glycolytic and mitochondrial sources of PEP influences the ß-cell nutrient response, and controls the oscillatory cycle regulating insulin secretion.

ß Cell-specific deletion of Zfp148 improves nutrient-stimulated ß cell Ca2+ responses.

Insulin secretion from pancreatic ß cells is essential for glucose homeostasis. An insufficient response to the demand for insulin results in diabetes. We previously showed that ß cell-specific deletion of Zfp148 (ß-Zfp148KO) improves glucose tolerance and insulin secretion in mice. Here, we performed Ca2+ imaging of islets from ß­Zfp148KO and control mice fed both a chow and a Western-style diet. ß-Zfp148KO islets demonstrated improved sensitivity and sustained Ca2+ oscillations in response to elevated glucose levels. ß-Zfp148KO islets also exhibited elevated sensitivity to amino acid-induced Ca2+ influx under low glucose conditions, suggesting enhanced mitochondrial phosphoenolpyruvate-dependent (PEP-dependent), ATP-sensitive K+ channel closure, independent of glycolysis. RNA-Seq and proteomics of ß-Zfp148KO islets revealed altered levels of enzymes involved in amino acid metabolism (specifically, SLC3A2, SLC7A8, GLS, GLS2, PSPH, PHGDH, and PSAT1) and intermediary metabolism (namely, GOT1 and PCK2), consistent with altered PEP cycling. In agreement with this, ß-Zfp148KO islets displayed enhanced insulin secretion in response to l-glutamine and activation of glutamate dehydrogenase. Understanding pathways controlled by ZFP148 may provide promising strategies for improving ß cell function that are robust to the metabolic challenge imposed by a Western diet.

CDK2 limits the highly energetic secretory program of mature ß cells by restricting PEP cycle-dependent KATP channel closure.

Hallmarks of mature ß cells are restricted proliferation and a highly energetic secretory state. Paradoxically, cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (CDK2) is synthesized throughout adulthood, its cytosolic localization raising the likelihood of cell cycle-independent functions. In the absence of any changes in ß cell mass, maturity, or proliferation, genetic deletion of Cdk2 in adult ß cells enhanced insulin secretion from isolated islets and improved glucose tolerance in vivo. At the single ß cell level, CDK2 restricts insulin secretion by increasing KATP conductance, raising the set point for membrane depolarization in response to activation of the phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) cycle with mitochondrial fuels. In parallel with reduced ß cell recruitment, CDK2 restricts oxidative glucose metabolism while promoting glucose-dependent amplification of insulin secretion. This study provides evidence of essential, non-canonical functions of CDK2 in the secretory pathways of quiescent ß cells.

Pyruvate Kinase Controls Signal Strength in the Insulin Secretory Pathway.

Pancreatic ß cells couple nutrient metabolism with appropriate insulin secretion. Here, we show that pyruvate kinase (PK), which converts ADP and phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) into ATP and pyruvate, underlies ß cell sensing of both glycolytic and mitochondrial fuels. Plasma membrane-localized PK is sufficient to close KATP channels and initiate calcium influx. Small-molecule PK activators increase the frequency of ATP/ADP and calcium oscillations and potently amplify insulin secretion. PK restricts respiration by cyclically depriving mitochondria of ADP, which accelerates PEP cycling until membrane depolarization restores ADP and oxidative phosphorylation. Our findings support a compartmentalized model of ß cell metabolism in which PK locally generates the ATP/ADP required for insulin secretion. Oscillatory PK activity allows mitochondria to perform synthetic and oxidative functions without any net impact on glucose oxidation. These findings suggest a potential therapeutic route for diabetes based on PK activation that would not be predicted by the current consensus single-state model of ß cell function.

Chronic exposure to fluoxetine (Prozac) causes developmental delays in Rana pipiens larvae.

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), such as fluoxetine, are among the many pharmaceuticals detected in aquatic ecosystems. Although the acute effects of SSRIs on select organisms have been reported, little is understood about the chronic effects of these drugs on amphibians, which are particularly sensitive to environmental pollutants. Serotonin plays important roles in many physiological functions, including a wide array of developmental processes. Exposure to SSRIs during development may cause developmental complications in a variety of organisms, but little is known about the degree of exposure necessary to cause deleterious effects. Here, we sought to gain a better understanding of the effects of SSRIs on amphibian development by use of a combined laboratory and outdoor mesocosm study. Tadpoles in a laboratory setting were exposed to a low (0.029 µg/L) and a high (0.29 µg/L) concentration of the common SSRI fluoxetine from stages 21 and 22 through completion of metamorphosis. Tadpoles in outdoor mesocosms were exposed to fluoxetine concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 0.3 µg/L. Exposed tadpoles in the laboratory showed delayed development compared with controls when stage was assessed throughout the experiment. Control tadpoles also gained weight faster than treatment tadpoles, which may be explained by reduced food intake. Mesocosm tadpoles exhibited similar trends, but no significant differences were detected. These results indicate that ecologically relevant levels of fluoxetine may cause developmental delays in amphibians.

Phenotypic heterogeneity among tumorigenic melanoma cells from patients that is reversible and not hierarchically organized.

We investigated whether melanoma is hierarchically organized into phenotypically distinct subpopulations of tumorigenic and nontumorigenic cells or whether most melanoma cells retain tumorigenic capacity, irrespective of their phenotype. We found 28% of single melanoma cells obtained directly from patients formed tumors in NOD/SCID IL2Rγ(null) mice. All stage II, III, and IV melanomas obtained directly from patients had common tumorigenic cells. All tumorigenic cells appeared to have unlimited tumorigenic capacity on serial transplantation. We were unable to find any large subpopulation of melanoma cells that lacked tumorigenic potential. None of 22 heterogeneously expressed markers, including CD271 and ABCB5, enriched tumorigenic cells. Some melanomas metastasized in mice, irrespective of whether they arose from CD271(-) or CD271(+) cells. Many markers appeared to be reversibly expressed by tumorigenic melanoma cells.