Combination of Miconazole and Domiphen Bromide Is Fungicidal against Biofilms of Resistant Candida spp.

The occurrence and recurrence of mucosal biofilm-related Candida infections, such as oral and vulvovaginal candidiasis, are serious clinical issues. Vaginal infections caused by Candida spp., for example, affect 70 to 75% of women at least once during their lives. Miconazole (MCZ) is the preferred topical treatment against these fungal infections, yet it has only moderate antibiofilm activity. Through screening of a drug-repurposing library, we identified the quaternary ammonium compound domiphen bromide (DB) as an MCZ potentiator against Candida biofilms. DB displayed synergistic anti-Candida albicans biofilm activity with MCZ, reducing the number of viable biofilm cells 1,000-fold. In addition, the MCZ-DB combination also resulted in significant killing of biofilm cells of azole-resistant C. albicans, C. glabrata, and C. auris isolates. In vivo, the MCZ-DB combination had significantly improved activity in a vulvovaginal candidiasis rat model compared to that of single-compound treatments. Data from an artificial evolution experiment indicated that the development of resistance against the combination did not occur, highlighting the potential of MCZ-DB combination therapy to treat Candida biofilm-related infections.

Regulatory status of N-alkylamide containing health products.

N-alkylamides (NAAs) are secondary metabolites occurring in more than 25 plant families. Plants containing NAAs are traditionally used in food for flavouring, tingling, pungent and saliva-enhancing properties but also to treat various diseases. NAA containing products are abundantly available on the market as food, cosmetics, medical devices and medicinal products. However, no unambiguous legal product classification is applied for these products. In this study, the different health product classes from a European viewpoint are discussed in relation to the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the NAAs, their applied dosage and claimed usage.

In Vitro Functional Quality Characterization of NOTA-Modified Somatropins.

Chemical modifications on protein biopharmaceuticals introduce extra variability in addition to their inherent complexity, hence require more comprehensive analytical and functional characterization during their discovery, development, and manufacturing. Somatropin (i.e., recombinant human growth hormone, rhGH) modified with the chelating agent S-2-(4-isothiocyanatobenzyl)-1,4,7-triazacyclononane-1,4,7-triacetic acid (p-SCN-Bn-NOTA) allows the incorporation of radiometals for research and possible theranostic purposes. We previously demonstrated that this conjugation leads to multiple substitution degrees and positional isomers within the product. In vitro techniques at the molecular and cellular levels were now applied to assess their functional quality: (i) size exclusion chromatography (SEC) demonstrated functional complexation with human growth hormone binding protein (hGHBp) to the different NOTA-modified somatropins as well as to gallium chelated NOTA-functionalities (Ga-10:1 NOTA-somatropin); (ii) native mass spectrometry (MS) offered in-depth information, a substitution degree up to four NOTAs was still functional; (iii) circular dichroism (CD) analysis confirmed the complexation of unmodified and NOTA-modified somatropin to hGHBp; and (iv) a hGHR bioassay demonstrated initiation of the signal transduction cascade, after binding of all investigated products to the receptor presented on cells with a similar potency (pEC50 values between 9.53 and 9.78) and efficacy (Emax values between 130 and 160%). We conclude that the NOTA-modified somatropins do not possess a significantly different in vitro functionality profile compared to unmodified somatropin. Techniques such as SEC, MS, and CD, traditionally used in the physicochemical characterization of proteins have a demonstrated potential use in the functionality evaluation not only in drug discovery and development but also in quality control settings.

Exploring the chemical space of quorum sensing peptides.

Quorum sensing peptides are signalling molecules that are produced by mainly gram-positive bacteria. These peptides can exert different effects, ranging from intra- and interspecies bacterial virulence to bacterial-host interactions. To better comprehend these functional differences, we explored their chemical space, bacterial species distribution and receptor-binding properties using multivariate data analyses, with information obtained from the Quorumpeps database. The quorum sensing peptides can be categorized into three main clusters, which, in turn, can be divided into several subclusters: the classification is based on characteristic chemical properties, including peptide size/compactness, hydrophilicity/lipophilicity, cyclization and the presence of (unnatural) S-containing and aromatic amino acids. Most of the bacterial species synthesize peptides located into one cluster. However, some Streptococcus, Stapylococcus, Clostridium, Bacillus and Lactobacillus species produce peptides that are distributed over more than one cluster, with the quorum sensing peptides of Bacillus subtilis even occupying the total peptide space. The AgrC, FsrC and LamC receptors are only activated by cyclic (thio)lacton or lactam quorum sensing peptides, while the lipophilic isoprenyl-modified peptides solely bind the ComP receptor in Bacillus species.

Screening of quorum sensing peptides for biological effects in neuronal cells.

Quorum sensing peptides (QSP) are an important class of bacterial peptides which can have an effect on human host cells. These peptides are used by bacteria to communicate with each other. Some QSP are able to cross the blood-brain barrier and reach the brain parenchyma. However, nothing is known about the effects of these peptides in the brain. Therefore, 85 quorum sensing peptides were screened on six different neuronal cell lines using MTT toxicity, neurite differentiation, cytokine production and morphology as biological outcomes. This primary screening resulted in 22 peptides with effects observed on neuronal cell lines, indicating a possible role in the gut-brain axis. Four peptides (Q138, Q143, Q180 and Q212) showed induction of neurite outgrowth while two peptides (Q162 and Q208) inhibited NGF-induced neurite outgrowth in PC12 cells. Eight peptides (Q25, Q135, Q137, Q146, Q151, Q165, Q208 and Q298) induced neurite outgrowth in human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells. Two peptides (Q13 and Q52) were toxic for SH-SY5Y cells and one (Q123) for BV-2 microglia cells based on the MTT assay. Six peptides had an effect on BV-2 microglia, Q180, Q184 and Q191 were able to induce IL-6 expression and Q164, Q192 and Q208 induced NO production. Finally, Q75 and Q147 treated C8D1A astrocytes demonstrated a higher fraction of round cells. Overall, these in vitro screening study results indicate for the first time possible effects of QSP on neuronal cells.

Chemical Classification of Cyclic Depsipeptides.

Cyclic depsipeptides (CDPs) are a family of cyclic peptide-related compounds, of which the ring is mainly composed of amino- and hydroxy acid residues joined by amide and ester bonds (at least one), leading to a wide diversity of fascinating chemical structures. They differ in both their ring structure and their side chains, especially by the nature of the unusual and non-amino acid building blocks. To date, however, there is no overall uniform chemical classification system available for CDPs and naming of the diverse family members is done rather arbitrarily. Therefore, a broad evaluation of different CDP structures is done, i.e., 1348 naturally occurring CDPs were included, and a straightforward chemical classification system using apparent chemical characteristics is proposed in order to organize the currently scattered CDP data. The overall validity of the classification approach is verified and the compounds categorized in the same groups are considered to be structurally related. This evaluation also revealed that traditionally formed CDP subfamilies, like the dolastatins, might be misleading from a chemical point of view given the structural differences in this subfamily. This up-to-date CDP overview enables peptide and natural product scientists to study the wide diversity in CDP structures, their chemical interrelationships and identification of existing and newly found CDPs. Together with the available information on the species producing these CDPs and their reported biological activities, this paper provides a useful tool to gain new insights into this diverse group of peptides.

Hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography method development and validation for the assay of HEPES zwitterionic buffer.

HEPES is a zwitterionic buffer component used as a raw material in the GMP-manufacturing of advanced therapy medicinal products (ATMPs), hence requiring an adequate assay method with sufficient selectivity toward related impurities. Therefore, a hydrophilic interaction chromatography (HILIC) method was developed. Different factors were investigated towards the retention behavior of HEPES, its analogue EPPS and its starting material isethionate: pH, ion concentration and organic solvent ratio of the mobile phase, as well as column temperature. Moreover, stress testing resulted in the N-oxide degradant, identified by high resolution MS. The final method consisted of an isocratic system with an aqueous (pH 2.0 with H3PO4) acetonitrile (35:65, v/v) mobile phase on a zwitterionic HILIC (Obelisc N) column with a flow rate of 0.5mL/min and UV detection at 195nm. The assay method of HEPES was validated, obtaining adequate linearity (R2=0.999), precision (RSD of 0.5%) and accuracy (recovery of 100.08%). Finally, the applicability of the validated method was demonstrated by analysis of samples from different suppliers.

Implementation of a single quad MS detector in routine QC analysis of peptide drugs.

A newly developed single quad mass spectrometry (MS) detector was coupled to a ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) system and implemented in the routine quality control (QC) and impurity analysis of four therapeutic peptides, namely bleomycin sulfate, tyrothricin, vancomycin HCl and bacitracin, which were selected given their multi-component drug nature and their closely structurally related impurity profiles. The QC and impurity profiling results obtained using the ultra-high performance liquid chromatography ultraviolet/mass spectrometry (UPLC-UV/MS) detection system were analyzed against the results obtained using traditional high performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet detection (HPLC-UV) methods derived from pharmacopoeial methods. In general, the used stationary phases of sub-2 µm particle (UPLC) technology resulted in lower limits of detection and higher resolution separations, which resulted in more detected impurities and shorter overall run times contrasting the traditional HPLC columns. Moreover, online coupling with a single quad MS detector allowed direct peak identification of the main compounds as well as small impurities, hereby increasing the information content without the need of reference standards.

Fish Hydrolysates: A Regulatory Perspective of Bioactive Peptides.

For the first time introduced on the Japanese market, bioactive fish hydrolysates are now available all over the world as food supplements, functional food ingredients or nutricosmeceuticals. They are generally produced from low value fish waste, an almost inexhaustible source of raw material, and are sold as high value products, making them economically interesting from a manufacturer's view point. Most of these products have health or structure/function claims on their packages with different actions like antihypertensive, blood-glucose lowering, anxiolytic, and skin anti-aging activities. Although the different regional legislations all aim to assure consumer safety and prevent misleading of the consumer, the number of legally approved fish hydrolysate containing products drastically differs among different regions. This is because products that have been positively evaluated based on safety and efficacy in one region were found to have not enough evidence for efficacy in another region. These findings call for further international harmonization of the regulation and classification of these products. Moreover, interaction studies of these bioactive products with the normal diet or medicines are generally not performed, keeping the consumer uninformed of the possible risks of combining these products with medicinal products or other food ingredients.

Quality control of cationic cell-penetrating peptides.

During fundamental research, it is recommended to evaluate the test compound identity and purity in order to obtain reliable study outcomes. For peptides, quality control (QC) analyses are routinely performed using reversed-phase liquid chromatography coupled to an ultraviolet (UV) detector system. These traditional QC methods, using a C18 column and a linear gradient with formic acid (FA) as acidic modifier in the mobile phase, might not result in optimal chromatographic performance for basic peptides due to their cationic nature and hence may lead to erroneous results. Therefore, the influence of the used chromatographic system on the final QC results of basic peptides was evaluated using five cationic cell-penetrating peptides and five C18-chromatographic systems, differing in the column particle size (high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) versus ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC)), the acidic modifier (FA versus trifluoroacetic acid (TFA)), and the column temperature (30 °C versus 60 °C). Our results indicate that a UHPLC system with the C18 column thermostated at 30 °C and a mobile phase containing TFA, provides the most suitable routine QC analysis method for cationic peptides, outperforming in sensitivity and resolution compared to the other systems. We also demonstrate the use of a single quad mass spectrometry (MS) detector system during QC analysis of (cationic) peptides, allowing identification of the peptide and its impurities, as well as the evaluation of the peak purity.

Exploration of the Medicinal Peptide Space.

The chemical properties of peptide medicines, known as the 'medicinal peptide space' is considered a multi-dimensional subset of the global peptide space, where each dimension represents a chemical descriptor. These descriptors can be linked to biofunctional, medicinal properties to varying degrees. Knowledge of this space can increase the efficiency of the peptide-drug discovery and development process, as well as advance our understanding and classification of peptide medicines. For 245 peptide drugs, already available on the market or in clinical development, multivariate dataexploration was performed using peptide relevant physicochemical descriptors, their specific peptidedrug target and their clinical use. Our retrospective analysis indicates that clusters in the medicinal peptide space are located in a relatively narrow range of the physicochemical space: dense and empty regions were found, which can be explored for the discovery of novel peptide drugs.

Blood-brain barrier transport kinetics of the cyclic depsipeptide mycotoxins beauvericin and enniatins.

The cyclic depsipeptide mycotoxins beauvericin and enniatins are capable of reaching the systemic circulation through various routes of exposure and are hence capable of exerting central nervous system (CNS) effects, if they are able to pass the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which was the main objective of this study. Quantification of the mycotoxins was performed using an in-house developed and validated bio-analytical UHPLC-MS/MS method. Prior to the BBB experiments, the metabolic stability of the mycotoxins was evaluated in vitro in mouse serum and brain homogenate. The BBB permeation kinetics of beauvericin and enniatins were studied using an in vivo mice model, applying multiple time regression for studying the blood-to-brain influx. Additionally, capillary depletion was applied to obtain the fraction of the peptides really entering the brain parenchyma and the fraction loosely adhered to the brain capillary wall. Finally, also the brain-to-blood efflux transport kinetics was studied. Metabolic stability data indicated that the investigated mycotoxins were stable during the duration of the in vivo study. The brain influx study showed that beauvericin and enniatins are able to cross the blood-brain barrier in mice: using the Gjedde-Patlak biphasic model, it was shown that all investigated mycotoxins exert a high initial influx rate into the brain (K1 ranging from 11 to 53µL/(g×min)), rapidly reaching a plateau. After penetration, the mycotoxins reached the brain parenchyma (95%) with only a limited amount residing in the capillaries (5%). Negligible efflux (<0.005min(-1)) from the brain was observed in the 15min post-intracerebroventricular injection.

Blood-brain barrier transport kinetics of the neuromedin peptides NMU, NMN, NMB and NT.

The neuromedin peptides are peripherally and centrally produced, but until now, it is generally believed that they only function as locally acting compounds without any quantitative knowledge about their blood-brain barrier (BBB) passage. Here, we characterize the transport kinetics of four neuromedins (NMU, NMN, NMB and NT) across the BBB, as well as their metabolization profile, and evaluate if they can act as endocrine hormones. Using the in vivo mouse model, multiple time regression (MTR), capillary depletion (CD) and brain efflux studies were performed. Data was fitted using linear (NMU, NT and NMB) or biphasic modeling (NMU and NMN). Three of the four investigated peptides, i.e. NMU, NT and NMN, showed a significant influx into the brain with unidirectional influx rate constants of 1.31 and 0.75 µL/(g × min) for NMU and NT respectively and initial influx constants (K1) of 72.14 and 7.55 µL/(g × min) and net influx constants (K) of 1.28 and 1.36 × 10(-16) µL/(g×min) for NMU and NMN respectively. The influx of NMB was negligible. Only NMN and NT showed a significant efflux out of the brain with an efflux constant (kout) of 0.042 min(-1) and 0.053 min(-1) respectively. Our results indicate that locally produced neuromedin peptides and/or fragments can be transported through the whole body, including passing the BBB, and taken up by different organs/tissues, supporting the idea that the neuromedins could have a much bigger role in the regulation of biological processes than currently assumed.

Quorum Sensing Peptides Selectively Penetrate the Blood-Brain Barrier.

Bacteria communicate with each other by the use of signaling molecules, a process called 'quorum sensing'. One group of quorum sensing molecules includes the oligopeptides, which are mainly produced by Gram-positive bacteria. Recently, these quorum sensing peptides were found to biologically influence mammalian cells, promoting i.a. metastasis of cancer cells. Moreover, it was found that bacteria can influence different central nervous system related disorders as well, e.g. anxiety, depression and autism. Research currently focuses on the role of bacterial metabolites in this bacteria-brain interaction, with the role of the quorum sensing peptides not yet known. Here, three chemically diverse quorum sensing peptides were investigated for their brain influx (multiple time regression technique) and efflux properties in an in vivo mouse model (ICR-CD-1) to determine blood-brain transfer properties: PhrCACET1 demonstrated comparatively a very high initial influx into the mouse brain (Kin = 20.87 µl/(g×min)), while brain penetrabilities of BIP-2 and PhrANTH2 were found to be low (Kin = 2.68 µl/(g×min)) and very low (Kin = 0.18 µl/(g×min)), respectively. All three quorum sensing peptides were metabolically stable in plasma (in vitro) during the experimental time frame and no significant brain efflux was observed. Initial tissue distribution data showed remarkably high liver accumulation of BIP-2 as well. Our results thus support the potential role of some quorum sensing peptides in different neurological disorders, thereby enlarging our knowledge about the microbiome-brain axis.

Cell-Penetrating Peptides Selectively Cross the Blood-Brain Barrier In Vivo.

Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are a group of peptides, which have the ability to cross cell membrane bilayers. CPPs themselves can exert biological activity and can be formed endogenously. Fragmentary studies demonstrate their ability to enhance transport of different cargoes across the blood-brain barrier (BBB). However, comparative, quantitative data on the BBB permeability of different CPPs are currently lacking. Therefore, the in vivo BBB transport characteristics of five chemically diverse CPPs, i.e. pVEC, SynB3, Tat 47-57, transportan 10 (TP10) and TP10-2, were determined. The results of the multiple time regression (MTR) analysis revealed that CPPs show divergent BBB influx properties: Tat 47-57, SynB3, and especially pVEC showed very high unidirectional influx rates of 4.73 µl/(g × min), 5.63 µl/(g × min) and 6.02 µl/(g × min), respectively, while the transportan analogs showed a negligible to low brain influx. Using capillary depletion, it was found that 80% of the influxed peptides effectively reached the brain parenchyma. Except for pVEC, all peptides showed a significant efflux out of the brain. Co-injection of pVEC with radioiodinated bovine serum albumin (BSA) did not enhance the brain influx of radiodionated BSA, indicating that pVEC does not itself significantly alter the BBB properties. A saturable mechanism could not be demonstrated by co-injecting an excess dose of non-radiolabeled CPP. No significant regional differences in brain influx were observed, with the exception for pVEC, for which the regional variations were only marginal. The observed BBB influx transport properties cannot be correlated with their cell-penetrating ability, and therefore, good CPP properties do not imply efficient brain influx.

Classification of Peptides According to their Blood-Brain Barrier Influx.

An increasing number of studies demonstrate the ability of peptides to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), opening perspectives for a new class of therapeutics for central nervous system diseases. However, information on the BBB transport of peptides suffer from a wide variety in used methods and experimental set-up. Therefore, it is currently difficult, if not impossible, to classify peptides according to their BBB influx characteristics. To allow direct comparison of BBB influx results of peptides, we introduce a classification method and unified response for BBB influx transport of peptides. First, the results of BBB influx response types (i.e. Kin (MTR), Kin (Perfusion), Pin vitro and Pin vivo), which quantitatively express brain influx, were classified into five classes of BBB influx magnitude based on the distribution of these results for the individual response types. Then, these classes were converted to a BBBin-response, representing a scaled value ranging from zero (no influx) to ten (high influx), independent from the BBB influx response type from which it was derived. This unified response can immediately be applied for new BBB influx results of peptides and represents a ballpark figure for BBB influx and allows direct comparison and ranking of peptides independent of the response type.

Peptide profiling of Internet-obtained Cerebrolysin using high performance liquid chromatography - electrospray ionization ion trap and ultra high performance liquid chromatography - ion mobility - quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry.

Cerebrolysin, a parenteral peptide preparation produced by controlled digestion of porcine brain proteins, is an approved nootropic medicine in some countries. However, it is also easily and globally available on the Internet. Nevertheless, until now, its exact chemical composition was unknown. Using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled to ion trap and ultra high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) coupled to quadrupole-ion mobility-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (Q-IM-TOF MS), combined with UniProt pig protein database search and PEAKS de novo sequencing, we identified 638 unique peptides in an Internet-obtained Cerebrolysin sample. The main components in this sample originate from tubulin alpha- and beta-chain, actin, and myelin basic protein. No fragments of known neurotrophic factors like glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), neurotrophin nerve growth factor (NGF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) were found, suggesting that the activities reported in the literature are likely the result of new, hitherto unknown cryptic peptides with nootropic properties.

Related impurities in peptide medicines.

Peptides are an increasingly important group of pharmaceuticals, positioned between classic small organic molecules and larger bio-molecules such as proteins. Currently, the peptide drug market is growing twice as fast as other drug markets, illustrating the increasing clinical as well as economical impact of this medicine group. Most peptides today are manufactured by solid-phase peptide synthesis (SPPS). This review will provide a structured overview of the most commonly observed peptide-related impurities in peptide medicines, encompassing the active pharmaceutical ingredients (API or drug substance) as well as the finished drug products. Not only is control of these peptide-related impurities and degradants critical for the already approved and clinically used peptide-drugs, these impurities also possess the capability of greatly influencing initial functionality studies during early drug discovery phases, possibly resulting in erroneous conclusions. The first group of peptide-related impurities is SPPS-related: deletion and insertion of amino acids are related to inefficient Fmoc-deprotection and excess use of amino acid reagents, respectively. Fmoc-deprotection can cause racemization of amino acid residues and thus diastereomeric impurities. Inefficient deprotection of amino acid side chains results into peptide-protection adducts. Furthermore, unprotected side chains can react with a variety of reagents used in the synthesis. Oxidation of amino acid side chains and dimeric-to-oligomeric impurities were also observed. Unwanted peptide counter ions such as trifluoroacetate, originating from the SPPS itself or from additional purification treatments, may also be present in the final peptide product. Contamination of the desired peptide product by other unrelated peptides was also seen, pointing out the lack of appropriate GMP. The second impurity group results from typical peptide degradation mechanisms such as ß-elimination, diketopiperazine, pyroglutamate and succinimide formation. These SPPS- and degradation-related impurity types can also found in the finished peptide drug products, which can additionally contain a third group of related impurities, i.e. the API-excipient degradation products.

Derringer desirability and kinetic plot LC-column comparison approach for MS-compatible lipopeptide analysis.

Lipopeptides are currently re-emerging as an interesting subgroup in the peptide research field, having historical applications as antibacterial and antifungal agents and new potential applications as antiviral, antitumor, immune-modulating and cell-penetrating compounds. However, due to their specific structure, chromatographic analysis often requires special buffer systems or the use of trifluoroacetic acid, limiting mass spectrometry detection. Therefore, we used a traditional aqueous/acetonitrile based gradient system, containing 0.1% (m/v) formic acid, to separate four pharmaceutically relevant lipopeptides (polymyxin B1, caspofungin, daptomycin and gramicidin A1), which were selected based upon hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and principal component analysis (PCA). In total, the performance of four different C18 columns, including one UPLC column, were evaluated using two parallel approaches. First, a Derringer desirability function was used, whereby six single and multiple chromatographic response values were rescaled into one overall D-value per column. Using this approach, the YMC Pack Pro C18 column was ranked as the best column for general MS-compatible lipopeptide separation. Secondly, the kinetic plot approach was used to compare the different columns at different flow rate ranges. As the optimal kinetic column performance is obtained at its maximal pressure, the length elongation factor λ (Pmax/Pexp) was used to transform the obtained experimental data (retention times and peak capacities) and construct kinetic performance limit (KPL) curves, allowing a direct visual and unbiased comparison of the selected columns, whereby the YMC Triart C18 UPLC and ACE C18 columns performed as best. Finally, differences in column performance and the (dis)advantages of both approaches are discussed.

Dry heat forced degradation of buserelin peptide: kinetics and degradant profiling.

Buserelin is a GnRH agonist peptide drug, comprising a nine amino acid sequence (pGlu-His-Trp-Ser-Tyr-D-Ser(tBu)-Leu-Arg-Pro-NH-Et) and most commonly known for its application in hormone dependent cancer therapy, e.g. prostate cancer. In order to evaluate its hot-melt extrusion (HME) capabilities, buserelin powder in its solid state was exposed to elevated temperatures for prolonged time periods. A stability indicating UPLC-PDA method was used for quantification of buserelin and the formed degradants. Different solid state kinetic models were statistically evaluated of which the Ginstling-Brounshtein model fitted the data best. Extrapolation to and experimental verification of typical HME-related conditions, i.e. 5 min at 100°C and 125°C, showed no significant degradation, thus demonstrating the HME capabilities of buserelin. Mass spectrometric identification of the buserelin-related degradants formed under solid state heat stress was performed. Based upon the identity of these degradants, different degradation hypotheses were raised. First, direct ß-elimination of the hydroxyl moiety at the serine residue, followed by fragmentation into an amide (pGlu-His-Trp-NH2) and pyruvoyl (pyruvoyl-Tyr-D-Ser(tBu)-Leu-Arg-Pro-NH-Et) peptide fragments, was postulated. Alternatively, internal esterification due to nucleophilic attack of the unprotected serine residue, followed by ß-elimination or hydrolysis would yield pGlu-His-Trp, pGlu-His-Trp-NH2 and the pyruvoyl peptide fragment. Degradant pGlu-His-Trp-Ser-Tyr-NH2 is believed to be formed in a similar way. Secondly, direct backbone hydrolysis would yield pGlu-His-Trp and Tyr-D-Ser(tBu)-Leu-Arg-Pro-NH-Et peptide fragments. Moreover, the presence of Ala-Tyr-D-Ser(tBu)-Leu-Arg-Pro-NH-Et can be explained by hydrolysis of the Trp-Ser peptide bond and conversion of the serine moiety to an alanine moiety. Third and finally, isomerisation of aforementioned peptide fragments and buserelin itself was also observed.