Stress-induced changes of the cholinergic circuitry promote retrieval-based generalization of aversive memories.

Generalization, the process of applying knowledge acquired in one context to other contexts, often drives the expression of similar behaviors in related situations. At the cellular level, generalization is thought to depend on the activity of overlapping neurons that represent shared features between contexts (general representations). Using contextual fear conditioning in mice, we demonstrate that generalization can also occur in response to stress and result from reactivation of specific, rather than general context representations. We found that generalization emerges during memory retrieval, along with stress-induced abnormalities of septohippocampal oscillatory activity and acetylcholine release, which are typically found in negative affective states. In hippocampal neurons that represent aversive memories and drive generalization, cholinergic septohippocampal afferents contributed to a unique reactivation pattern of cFos, Npas4, and repressor element-1 silencing transcription factor (REST). Together, these findings suggest that generalization can be triggered by perceptually dissimilar but valence-congruent memories of specific aversive experiences. Through promoting the reactivation of such memories and their interference with ongoing behavior, abnormal cholinergic signaling could underlie maladaptive cognitive and behavioral generalization linked to negative affective states.

Differential Contributions of Glutamatergic Hippocampal→Retrosplenial Cortical Projections to the Formation and Persistence of Context Memories.

Learning to associate stressful events with specific environmental contexts depends on excitatory transmission in the hippocampus, but how this information is transmitted to the neocortex for lasting memory storage is unclear. We identified dorsal hippocampal (DH) projections to the retrosplenial cortex (RSC), which arise mainly from the subiculum and contain either the vesicular glutamate transporter 1 (vGlut1) or vGlut2. Both vGlut1+ and vGlut2+ axons strongly excite and disynaptically inhibit RSC pyramidal neurons in superficial layers, but vGlut2+ axons trigger greater inhibition that spreads to deep layers, indicating that these pathways engage RSC circuits via partially redundant, partially differentiated cellular mechanisms. Using contextual fear conditioning in mice to model contextual associative memories, together with chemogenetic axonal silencing, we found that vGlut1+ projections are principally involved in processing recent context memories whereas vGlut2+ projections contribute to their long-lasting storage. Thus, within the DH→RSC pathway, engagement of vGlut1+ and vGlut2+ circuits differentially contribute to the formation and persistence of fear-inducing context memories.

Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors act in synergy to facilitate learning and memory.

Understanding how episodic memories are formed and retrieved is necessary if we are to treat disorders in which they malfunction. Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChR) in the hippocampus and cortex underlie memory formation, but there is conflicting evidence regarding their role in memory retrieval. Additionally, there is no consensus on which mAChR subtypes are critical for memory processing. Using pharmacological and genetic approaches, we found that (1) encoding and retrieval of contextual memory requires mAChR in the dorsal hippocampus (DH) and retrosplenial cortex (RSC), (2) memory formation requires hippocampal M3 and cooperative activity of RSC M1 and M3, and (3) memory retrieval is more impaired by inactivation of multiple M1-M4 mAChR in DH or RSC than inactivation of individual receptor subtypes. Contrary to the view that acetylcholine supports learning but is detrimental to memory retrieval, we found that coactivation of multiple mAChR is required for retrieval of both recently and remotely acquired context memories. Manipulations with higher receptor specificity were generally less potent than manipulations targeting multiple receptor subtypes, suggesting that mAChR act in synergy to regulate memory processes. These findings provide unique insight into the development of therapies for amnestic symptoms, suggesting that broadly acting, rather than receptor-specific, mAchR agonists and positive allosteric modulators may be the most effective therapeutic approach.

NMDA receptors in retrosplenial cortex are necessary for retrieval of recent and remote context fear memory.

Over time, memory retrieval is thought to transfer from the hippocampus to a distributed network of neocortical sites. Of these sites, the retrosplenial cortex (RSC) is robustly activated during retrieval of remotely acquired, emotionally valenced memories. It is unclear, however, whether RSC is specifically involved in memory storage or retrieval, and which neurotransmitter receptor mechanisms serve its function. We addressed these questions by inhibiting NMDARs in RSC via infusions of APV before tests for context fear in mice. Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and dorsal hippocampus (DH), which have been implicated in the retrieval of remote and recent memory, respectively, served as neuroanatomical controls. Surprisingly, infusion of APV only into RSC, but not ACC or DH, abolished retrieval of remote memory, as revealed by lack of freezing to the conditioning context. APV infused into RSC also impaired retrieval of recent memory, but had no effect on conditioning or memory storage. Within-subject experiments confirmed that the role of RSC in memory retrieval is not time limited. RSC-dependent context fear memory retrieval was mediated by NR2A, but not NR2B, subunit-containing NMDARs. Collectively, these data are the first demonstration that NMDARs in RSC are necessary for the retrieval of remote and recent memories of fear-evoking contexts. Dysfunction of RSC may thereby contribute significantly to the reexperiencing of traumatic memories in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder.

IQGAP1 regulates NR2A signaling, spine density, and cognitive processes.

General or brain-region-specific decreases in spine number or morphology accompany major neuropsychiatric disorders. It is unclear, however, whether changes in spine density are specific for an individual mental process or disorder and, if so, which molecules confer such specificity. Here we identify the scaffolding protein IQGAP1 as a key regulator of dendritic spine number with a specific role in cognitive but not emotional or motivational processes. We show that IQGAP1 is an important component of NMDAR multiprotein complexes and functionally interacts with the NR2A subunits and the extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 (ERK1) and ERK2 signaling pathway. Mice lacking the IQGAP1 gene exhibited significantly lower levels of surface NR2A and impaired ERK activity compared to their wild-type littermates. Accordingly, primary hippocampal cultures of IQGAP1(-/-) neurons exhibited reduced surface expression of NR2A and disrupted ERK signaling in response to NR2A-dependent NMDAR stimulation. These molecular changes were accompanied by region-specific reductions of dendritic spine density in key brain areas involved in cognition, emotion, and motivation. IQGAP1 knock-outs exhibited marked long-term memory deficits accompanied by impaired hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP) in a weak cellular learning model; in contrast, LTP was unaffected when induced with stronger stimulation paradigms. Anxiety- and depression-like behavior remained intact. On the basis of these findings, we propose that a dysfunctional IQGAP1 gene contributes to the cognitive deficits in brain disorders characterized by fewer dendritic spines.

ERK-associated changes of AP-1 proteins during fear extinction.

Extensive research has unraveled the molecular basis of learning processes underlying contextual fear conditioning, but the mechanisms of fear extinction remain less known. Contextual fear extinction occurs when an aversive stimulus that initially caused fear is no longer present and depends on the activation of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), among other molecules. Here we investigated how ERK signaling triggered by extinction affects its downstream targets belonging to the activator protein-1 (AP-1) transcription factor family. We found that extinction, when compared to conditioning of fear, markedly enhanced the interactions of active, phospho-ERK (pERK ) with c-Jun causing alterations of its phosphorylation state. The AP-1 binding of c-Jun was decreased whereas AP-1 binding of JunD, Jun dimerization protein 2 (JDP2) and ERK were significantly enhanced. The increased AP-1 binding of the inhibitory JunD and JDP2 transcription factors was paralleled by decreased levels of the AP-1 regulated proteins c-Fos and GluR2. These changes were specific for extinction and were MEK-dependent. Overall, fear extinction involves ERK/Jun interactions and a decrease of a subset of AP-1-regulated proteins that are typically required for fear conditioning. Facilitating the formation of inhibitory AP-1 complexes may thus facilitate the reduction of fear.

Stress-induced generalization of negative memories is mediated by an extended hippocampal circuit.

Memories of negative experiences exert important control of behavior in the face of actual or anticipated threat. Sometimes, however, this control extends to non-threatening situations, a phenomenon known as overgeneralization of negative memories. Overgeneralization is a reliable cognitive phenotype of major depressive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder. We therefore sought to develop an animal model to study stress-induced generalization of negative memories (SIG) and determine its dependence on the episodic-like memory circuit. We found that male and female mice, which were trained to differentiate a threatening from neutral context, exhibited robust SIG in response to subsequent social stress. Using chemogenetic circuit manipulations during memory retrieval, we demonstrated that both excitatory afferents to the dorsal hippocampus (DH) from the ventral tegmental area (VTA), and excitatory efferents from the DH to the retrosplenial cortex (RSC) contribute to SIG. Based on the known roles of these projections, we suggest that (1) by targeting subcortical VTA circuits that provide valence signals to the DH, stress prioritizes the retrieval of negative over neutral memories, and (2) by forwarding such information to the RSC, stress engages cortical mechanisms that support the retrieval of general relative to specific memory features. Altogether, these results suggest that various components of the extended hippocampal circuit can serve as treatment targets for memory overgeneralization.

Primary cilia are required for the persistence of memory and stabilization of perineuronal nets.

It is well established that the formation of episodic memories requires multiple hippocampal mechanisms operating on different time scales. Early mechanisms of memory formation (synaptic consolidation) have been extensively characterized. However, delayed mechanisms, which maintain hippocampal activity as memories stabilize in cortical circuits, are not well understood. Here we demonstrate that contrary to the transient expression of early- and delayed-response genes, the expression of cytoskeleton- and extracellular matrix-associated genes remains dynamic even at remote time points. The most profound expression changes clustered around primary cilium-associated and collagen genes. These genes most likely contribute to memory by stabilizing perineuronal nets in the dorsohippocampal CA1 subfield, as revealed by targeted disruptions of the primary cilium or perineuronal nets. The findings show that nonsynaptic, primary cilium-mediated mechanisms are required for the persistence of context memory.

Segregated populations of hippocampal principal CA1 neurons mediating conditioning and extinction of contextual fear.

Learning processes mediating conditioning and extinction of contextual fear require activation of several key signaling pathways in the hippocampus. Principal hippocampal CA1 neurons respond to fear conditioning by a coordinated activation of multiple protein kinases and immediate early genes, such as cFos, enabling rapid and lasting consolidation of contextual fear memory. The extracellular signal-regulated kinase (Erk) additionally acts as a central mediator of fear extinction. It is not known however, whether these molecular events take place in overlapping or nonoverlapping neuronal populations. By using mouse models of conditioning and extinction of fear, we set out to determine the time course of cFos and Erk activity, their cellular overlap, and regulation by afferent cholinergic input from the medial septum. Analyses of cFos(+) and pErk(+) cells by immunofluorescence revealed predominant nuclear activation of either protein during conditioning and extinction of fear, respectively. Transgenic cFos-LacZ mice were further used to label in vivo Fos(+) hippocampal cells during conditioning followed by pErk immunostaining after extinction. The results showed that these signaling molecules were activated in segregated populations of hippocampal principal neurons. Furthermore, immunotoxin-induced lesions of medial septal neurons, providing cholinergic input into the hippocampus, selectively abolished Erk activation and extinction of fear without affecting cFos responses and conditioning. These results demonstrate that extinction mechanisms based on Erk signaling involve a specific population of CA1 principal neurons distinctively regulated by afferent cholinergic input from the medial septum.

Hippocampal NMDA receptor subunits differentially regulate fear memory formation and neuronal signal propagation.

Activation of NMDA receptors (NMDAR) in the hippocampus is essential for the formation of contextual and trace memory. However, the role of individual NMDAR subunits in the molecular mechanisms contributing to these memory processes is not known. Here we demonstrate, using intrahippocampal injection of subunit-selective compounds, that the NR2A-preferring antagonist impaired contextual and trace fear conditioning as well as learning-induced increase of the nuclear protein c-Fos. The NR2B-specific antagonist, on the other hand, selectively blocked trace fear conditioning without affecting c-Fos levels. Studies with cultured primary hippocampal neurons, further showed that synaptic and extrasynaptic NR2A and NR2B differentially regulate the extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 and 2/mitogen- and stress-activated protein kinase 1 (ERK1/2/MSK1)/c-Fos pathway. Activation of the synaptic population of NMDAR induced cytosolic, cytoskeletal, and perinuclear phosphorylation of ERK1/2 (pERK1/2). The nuclear propagation of pERK1/2 signals, revealed by upregulation of the downstream nuclear targets pMSK1 and c-Fos, was blocked by a preferential NR2A but not by a specific NR2B antagonist. Conversely, activation of total (synaptic and extrasynaptic) NMDAR engaged receptors with NR2B subunits, and resulted in membrane retention of pERK1/2 without inducing pMSK1 and c-Fos. Stimulation of extrasynaptic NMDAR alone was consistently ineffective at activating ERK signaling. The discrete contribution of synaptic and total NR2A- and NR2B-containing NMDAR to nuclear transmission vs. membrane retention of ERK signaling may underlie their specific roles in the formation of contextual and trace fear memory.

Hippocampal Erk mechanisms linking prediction error to fear extinction: roles of shock expectancy and contextual aversive valence.

Extinction of fear requires learning that anticipated aversive events no longer occur. Animal models reveal that sustained phosphorylation of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (Erk) in hippocampal CA1 neurons plays an important role in this process. However, the key signals triggering and regulating the activity of Erk are not known. By varying the degree of expected and delivered aversive reinforcement, we demonstrate that Erk specifically responds to prediction errors of contextual aversive events. An increase of somatonuclear phospho-Erk (pErk) within principal CA1 neurons was observed only when the expectation of contextual foot shock was violated, but not when the context was consistently nonreinforced or reinforced by foot shock. The rate of error detection, Erk signaling, and fear extinction markedly depended on shock expectancy and the aversive valence of the context, as revealed by comparison of groups trained with single, continuous, or partial reinforcement. On the basis of these findings, the hippocampal Erk response to prediction errors of aversive outcome is proposed as a unique mechanism of fear extinction. Improving the detection and processing of these errors has the potential to attenuate fear responses in patients with anxiety disorders.

Stress-related memories disrupt sociability and associated patterning of hippocampal activity: a role of hilar oxytocin receptor-positive interneurons.

In susceptible individuals, memories of stressful experiences can give rise to debilitating socio-affective symptoms. This occurs even when the ability to retrieve such memories is limited, as seen in patients suffering from traumatic amnesia. We therefore hypothesized that the encoding, rather than retrieval, mechanisms of stress-related memories underlie their impact on social and emotional behavior. To test this hypothesis, we used combinations of stress-enhanced and state-dependent fear conditioning, which engage different encoding mechanisms for the formation of stress-related memories. We found that the encoding of stress-enhanced state-dependent memories robustly and sex specifically impairs sociability in male mice and disrupts the asymmetry of dentate gyrus (DG)/CA3 activity accompanying social interactions. These deficits were restored by chemogenetic inactivation of oxytocin receptor-positive interneurons localized in the hilus (Oxtr-HI), and by inactivation of dorsohippocampal efferents to the caudal lateral septum. Together, our data suggest that disrupted patterning of dorsohippocampal DG/CA3 activity underlies stress-induced sociability deficits, and that Oxtr-HI can be a cellular target for improving these deficits.

Excitatory VTA to DH projections provide a valence signal to memory circuits.

The positive or negative value (valence) of past experiences is normally integrated into neuronal circuits that encode episodic memories and plays an important role in guiding behavior. Here, we show, using mouse behavioral models, that glutamatergic afferents from the ventral tegmental area to the dorsal hippocampus (VTA→DH) signal negative valence to memory circuits, leading to the formation of fear-inducing context memories and to context-specific reinstatement of fear. To a lesser extent, these projections also contributed to opioid-induced place preference, suggesting a role in signaling positive valence as well, and thus a lack of dedicated polarity. Manipulations of VTA terminal activity were more effective in females and paralleled by sex differences in glutamatergic signaling. By prioritizing retrieval of negative and positive over neutral memories, the VTA→DH circuit can facilitate the selection of adaptive behaviors when current and past experiences are valence congruent.

GABAergic mechanisms regulated by miR-33 encode state-dependent fear.

Fear-inducing memories can be state dependent, meaning that they can best be retrieved if the brain states at encoding and retrieval are similar. Restricted access to such memories can present a risk for psychiatric disorders and hamper their treatment. To better understand the mechanisms underlying state-dependent fear, we used a mouse model of contextual fear conditioning. We found that heightened activity of hippocampal extrasynaptic GABAA receptors, believed to impair fear and memory, actually enabled their state-dependent encoding and retrieval. This effect required protein kinase C-ßII and was influenced by miR-33, a microRNA that regulates several GABA-related proteins. In the extended hippocampal circuit, extrasynaptic GABAA receptors promoted subcortical, but impaired cortical, activation during memory encoding of context fear. Moreover, suppression of retrosplenial cortical activity, which normally impairs retrieval, had an enhancing effect on the retrieval of state-dependent fear. These mechanisms can serve as treatment targets for managing access to state-dependent memories of stressful experiences.

Double Dissociation of the Roles of Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor 5 and Oxytocin Receptor in Discrete Social Behaviors.

Social interactions in vertebrates are complex phenomena based on affective and cognitive processes. Multiple brain regions and neurotransmitter systems are involved in the expression of social behaviors, but their individual roles in specific aspects of social interactions are not well understood. Here we investigated how Gq-protein-coupled metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGluR5) and oxytocin receptor (Oxtr) affect social affiliation and social memory. We used conditional genetic approaches in which the genes coding for these receptors were knocked out in the lateral septum by infusion of recombinant adeno-associated viral vectors containing Cre recombinase (AAV-Cre). Social behavior was assessed 2 weeks later using a three-chamber paradigm for sociability and preference for social novelty. Septal deletion of mGluR5 abolished sociability while leaving preference for social novelty intact. In contrast, deletion of Oxtr did not affect sociability but significantly impaired preference for social novelty. Nonsocial behaviors or memories, including novel object recognition or fear conditioning, were not affected by these genetic manipulations. Immunohistochemical analyses of the distribution of mGluR5 and Oxtr revealed non-overlapping localization of these receptors within the lateral septum, suggesting that not only different neurotransmitters but also different neuronal types contribute to sociability versus preference for social novelty. Our findings identify highly specialized roles of lateral septal mGluR5 and Oxtr in the the regulation of discrete social behaviors, and suggest that deficits in social interactions, which accompany many mental illnesses, would benefit from comprehensive treatments targeting different components of social functioning.

Role of oxytocin receptors in modulation of fear by social memory.

RATIONALE: Oxytocin receptors (Oxtr) are important mediators of social learning and emotion, with bidirectional effects on fear and anxiety. Contrary to the anxiolytic actions of Oxtr in the amygdala, we recently showed that Oxtr in the lateral septum mediate the enhancement of fear conditioning by social defeat in mice. OBJECTIVES: Using positive social interactions, which impair fear conditioning, here we attempted to delineate whether the role of septal Oxtr in fear regulation depends on the valence of the social memory. METHODS: Pharmacological and genetic manipulations of lateral septal Oxtr were combined with the social buffering of fear paradigm, in which pre-exposure to nonfearful conspecifics reduces subsequent contextual fear conditioning, as revealed by decreased freezing behavior. RESULTS: Antagonism and down-regulation of Oxtr in the lateral septum abolished, while oxytocin (Oxt) administration before pre-exposure to nonfearful conspecifics facilitated the decrease of freezing behavior. CONCLUSIONS: The septal oxytocin system enhances memory of social interactions regardless of their valence, reducing fear after positive and enhancing fear after negative social encounters. These findings explain, at least in part, the seemingly bidirectional role of Oxt in fear regulation.

Fear-enhancing effects of septal oxytocin receptors.

The nonapeptide oxytocin is considered beneficial to mental health due to its anxiolytic, prosocial and antistress effects, but evidence for anxiogenic actions of oxytocin in humans has recently emerged. Using region-specific manipulations of the mouse oxytocin receptor (Oxtr) gene (Oxtr), we identified the lateral septum as the brain region mediating fear-enhancing effects of Oxtr. These effects emerge after social defeat and require Oxtr specifically coupled to the extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase pathway.