What do you bring to the table? Exploring psychological attributes that predict successful military training.

The psychological characteristics that new recruits bring when starting military basic training (MBT) may help or hinder successful completion rates. The first part of this study explores how psychological characteristics assessed at the start of MBT influence retention and performance outcomes upon completion. At the start and upon completing MBT, a sample of 204 UK male Infantry recruits undergoing a 26-week Combat Infantryman's Course were assessed on personality traits (psychoticism, neuroticism, and extroversion); a set of relevant cognitions (i.e. effortful control); motivation (i.e. internalization of military core values); and an assessment of mentally tough behavior. Recruits who successfully completed MBT were significantly higher in age, psychoticism, and mentally tough behavior. The second part of the study explored how MBT influenced these variables across time. A subsample of 132 male Infantry recruits that passed basic military training first time were analyzed. Across the 26-week course, there was a significant increase in extraversion, and a significant decrease in neuroticism, and external regulation. Results differed slightly when we removed the lowest passing group from the analysis and whether MANOVA or Logistic Regression analysis was used. Results indicate that what you bring to the table will influence pass and retention rates.

The structural validity of the IKDC and its relationship with quality of life following ACL reconstruction.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to (a) examine the structural validity of the International Knee Documentation Committee Subjective Knee Form in light of previously reported dimensionality issues, and (b) examine the relationships between the IKDC and patients' knee-related quality of life 2-9 years after anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction. METHODS: A prospective research design was employed, wherein 319 patients (mean age = 29.07, SD = 9.03) completed the IKDC before surgery, 191 patients (mean age = 29.71, SD = 9.36) completed the IKDC at 6 months post-surgery, and 132 patients (mean age = 34.34, SD = 7.89) completed the IKDC and the Anterior Cruciate Ligament Quality of Life Survey (ACL-QOL) at 2-9 years post-surgery. RESULTS: Bayesian structural equation modeling analysis confirmed the two-factor structure (symptom & knee articulation and activity level) represented the most accurate conceptualization of perceived knee function across the three time-points. Moreover, findings revealed that of the two IKDC subscales pre-operatively, activity level was most strongly associated with long-term quality of life at 2-9 years following surgery, whereas 2-9 years post-operatively, symptoms and knee articulation was most strongly associated with long-term quality of life. CONCLUSIONS: The IKDC provides clinicians with a convenient total score to assess patients' perceived knee function, but its unidimensional factor structure is a poor representation of its items and fails to detect discrepancies in patients' post-operative quality of life, such as the relative importance of perceived knee activity level before reconstructive surgery.

The benefit of punishment sensitivity on motor performance under pressure.

OBJECTIVE: Humans are often required to perform demanding cognitive and motor tasks under pressure. However, in such environments there is considerable interindividual variability in the ability to successfully execute actions. Here, we consider how individual differences in self-reported sensitivity to punishment influence skilled motor performance under pressure and whether this relationship is moderated by the temporal detection of threat. METHOD: Across two studies, 160 UK participants (Study 1: N = 80, Mage = 21.6, 52 males; Study 2: N = 80, Mage = 24.95, 45 males) performed a precision-grip task and received either early or late warning of an upcoming stressful manipulation involving social evaluation and performance-dependent incentives. RESULTS: In both studies, we report an interaction where punishment sensitivity was adaptive for motor performance only when threats were detected early and there was opportunity to prepare for the upcoming stressor. Further, our results suggest that the benefits of punishment sensitivity are likely underpinned by the effective use of cognitive strategies. CONCLUSION: Heightened sensitivity to punishment is adaptive for performance under pressure, provided threats are detected early and effective cognitive strategies are implemented.

New evidence of relative age effects in "super-elite" sportsmen: a case for the survival and evolution of the fittest.

The relative age effect (RAE) describes an overrepresentation of players born early (Q1) in a selection year and is highly prevalent within youth sport pathways. However, a dearth of research has investigated the RAE at the "super-elite" level. The present research assessed the presence of RAE in super-elite performers. Study 1 investigated RAEs in the world's best international Test cricketers (N = 262) over a 20-year period according to a robust and stringent "super-elite" criteria. Results revealed the RAE (Q1) when all disciplines were combined. Upon closer examination, this effect was also observed for the batting and spin bowling disciplines, whereas no RAE was found for the pace bowling discipline. Study 2 investigated RAEs in super-elite rugby union players (N = 691) over a 20 year period. Results revealed the RAE for backs (Q1) and a reversal of the traditional RAE (Q4) for forwards, and when all rugby union positions were combined. These findings provide new evidence of RAEs at the super-elite level and present both inter and intra sports differences. Potential explanations for these findings are explored, owing to the survival and evolution of the fittest concepts, and the implications for future research and applied practice are presented.

Practice with anxiety improves performance, but only when anxious: evidence for the specificity of practice hypothesis.

We investigated for the first time whether the principles of specificity could be extended to the psychological construct of anxiety and whether any benefits of practicing with anxiety are dependent on the amount of exposure and timing of that exposure in relation to where in learning the exposure occurs. In Experiment 1, novices practiced a discrete golf-putting task in one of four groups: all practice trials under anxiety (anxiety), non-anxiety (control), or a combination of these two (i.e., the first half of practice under anxiety before changing to non-anxiety conditions, anxiety-control, or the reverse of this, control-anxiety). Following acquisition, all groups were transferred to an anxiety condition. Results revealed a significant acquisition-to-transfer decrement in performance between acquisition and transfer for the control group only. In Experiment 2, novices practiced a complex rock climbing task in one of the four groups detailed above, before being transferred to both a high-anxiety condition and a low-anxiety condition (the ordering of these was counterbalanced across participants). Performance in anxiety transfer was greater following practice with anxiety compared to practice without anxiety. However, these benefits were influenced by the timing of anxiety exposure since performance was greatest when exposure to anxiety occurred in the latter half of acquisition. In the low-anxiety transfer test, performance was lowest for those who had practiced with anxiety only, thus providing support for the specificity of practice hypothesis. Results demonstrate that the specificity of learning principle can be extended to include the psychological construct of anxiety. Furthermore, the specificity advantage appears dependent on its timing in the learning process.

The effect of state anxiety on the online and offline control of fast target-directed movements.

In target-directed aiming, afferent information is used to adjust limb trajectories during movement execution (i.e. online) and to enhance the programming of subsequent trials (i.e. offline). The objective of the present study was to determine the influence of state anxiety on both online and offline afferent information processing for the first time. Participants practiced either a directional aiming task (Experiment 1) or an amplitude aiming task (Experiment 2) without anxiety before being transferred to a high anxiety condition. In both experiments, results revealed that anxiety resulted in a decrement in performance. Furthermore, use of afferent information to adjust movement trajectories online was disrupted when movements were performed with anxiety, whereas there were no differences in the offline processing of afferent information between the low anxiety and high anxiety conditions.

The Role of Optimism and Psychosocial Factors in Athletes Recovery From ACL Injury: A Longitudinal Study.

Despite a growing interest into the role of psychosocial factors during the recovery period following sports injuries, there remains a paucity of longitudinal studies examining the indirect relationships between psychosocial factors, psychological responses, and recovery outcomes. The purpose of this study was to construct and test a conceptual model which examined the indirect relationships between optimism, psychosocial factors, rehabilitation adherence, and perceived knee function up to 12 months post anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) surgery. A prospective, longitudinal, and repeated measures design was employed, wherein 81 injured athletes (M age 26.89, SD = 7.52) completed measures of optimism, psychosocial factors, rehabilitation adherence, and perceived knee function on seven occasions (pre-surgery to 1 year post-surgery). Bayesian structural equation modeling evaluated the hypothesized indirect relationships proposed within the conceptual model. The main findings from this study was empirical support for a time-ordered, conceptual model which demonstrated that pre-surgery optimism had a significant overall indirect effect on perceived knee function at 12 months post-surgery (sum of indirect; αß = 0.08, post. SD = 0.05, CI [0.01, 0.04]), as well as a specific indirect effect through secondary appraisal at 1 month post-surgery, efficacy at 2 months post-surgery, and rehabilitation adherence at 6 months post-surgery (αß = 0.03, post. SD = 0.03, CI [0.00, 0.10]). Collectively, this study provides support for a number of previously hypothesized, but not empirically examined, indirect relationships between optimism, psychosocial factors and recovery outcomes. In doing so, we provide a conceptual model which has the potential to help guide individualized treatment recommendations, as well as identify individuals at risk of compromised recovery outcomes following ACL surgery.

Action dual tasks reveal differential effects of visual imagery perspectives on motor performance.

Imagery research has identified two main visual perspectives, external visual imagery (EVI, third person) and internal visual imagery (IVI, first person). Based upon findings from brain imaging literature showing that different neural substrates are recruited for IVI and EVI perspectives, and that IVI activates motor system brain areas, we hypothesised that a concurrent action dual task would cause greater interference in performance for IVI than EVI. In a first experiment, participants were allocated to either an IVI or an EVI group, and were tasked with moving an onscreen marker towards a target in three blocked conditions: imagery, imagery with a concurrent motor dual-task of sequencing, and a math control. An interaction between imagery group and condition was driven by greater root mean square error for participants in the dual-task condition in the IVI group compared with the EVI group. We replicated the experiment with an eye-tracking objective measure of IVI; the results again showed that participants in the IVI group made more errors in motor movements, and an interference effect in eye movements, during the dual-task sequencing condition compared with the EVI group. The results of the two experiments reveal that a secondary motor task does interfere with IVI, providing behavioural evidence that IVI appears to rely on motor system processes more than EVI. These results have important implications for the use of visual imagery perspectives across a number of domains, with this paper being an essential reference for those conducting visual imagery perspectives research.

Real evidence for the failure of the Jamesian perspective or more evidence in support of it?

Hardy and Moriarty (2006) presented evidence in support of James's (1890) individual importance hypothesis using a new methodology. Marsh (in press) criticized the Hardy and Moriarty approach, claiming that it did not constitute a valid test of the hypothesis and that in his article he had produced more evidence against it. In this article, we refute both these claims and argue instead that Marsh's individually weighted-averages method does not constitute a valid test of the hypothesis. We also assert that his new analyses actually offer further evidence in support of the Jamesian perspective. Finally, we direct attention toward questionable assumptions that appear to underpin Marsh's approach, and we try to point a way forward for future research in this area.

Anxiety-induced performance catastrophes: investigating effort required as an asymmetry factor.

Two studies are reported that test the hypothesis that previous support for the cusp catastrophe model of anxiety and performance, and the hysteresis effect in particular, could have been due to a complex interaction between cognitive anxiety and effort required rather than between cognitive anxiety and physiological arousal. We used task difficulty to manipulate effort required in a letter transformation task. Experiment 1 (N=32) used high levels of trait anxiety together with a competitive environment to induce state anxiety. Experiment 2 (N=20) used a competitive environment with social pressure and ego threat instructions to induce high levels of worry. Both studies revealed significant three-way interactions as hypothesized with follow-up tests showing some support for the hysteresis hypothesis in Study 1, and strong support for the hysteresis hypothesis in Study 2. The findings support a processing efficiency theory explanation of anxiety-induced performance catastrophes and indicate that two cusp catastrophe models of performance may exist; one that incorporates the interactive effects of cognitive anxiety and physiological arousal upon performance and the other that incorporates the interactive effects of cognitive anxiety and effort required upon performance.

Implicit and explicit control of motor actions: revisiting some early evidence.

Two studies have questioned Masters' (1992) contention that skills acquired in implicit practice conditions are less likely to fail under pressure than those acquired explicitly. The studies produced conflicting results. The aim of the present study was to revisit the designs of both studies in an attempt to clarify the situation. Thirty-two participants were allocated to one of three separate implicit training groups or an explicit training group, and practised putting golf balls. Participants were exposed to an anxiety intervention at two points during practice. Putting performance across practice and anxiety phases were analysed using the number of putts successfully completed as the main dependent variable. We found further evidence for the suggestion that motor skills are robust under pressure when acquired in implicit practice conditions.

Big Hitters: Important Factors Characterizing Team Effectiveness in Professional Cricket.

While organizational psychology attests to the multidimensional nature of team effectiveness, insight regarding the most important factors contributing to the effectiveness of sports teams, especially elite teams, is lacking. An abductive method of qualitative enquiry was adopted to capture participants' construal of team effectiveness, drawing on the extant literature in both sport and organizational psychology. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 21 players, coaches, and psychologists involved in elite cricket, with resultant data analyzed inductively initially, before being reanalyzed deductively. Although, the narratives endorsed the value of many of the deductively derived factors, other constructs more prominent in organizational psychology (e.g., trust and intra-group conflict) appeared to be more important than traditional sport psychology group factors. The results revealed six broad themes; culture and environment, values, communication, understanding, leadership, and unique individuals, with some gender differences apparent throughout. Based on our elite sample's construal of team effectiveness, we propose a new model representing a practical, parsimonious, and novel conceptualization of the most important attributes of team effectiveness in cricket, with conceivable transferability to other team sports.

Great British medalists: Psychosocial biographies of Super-Elite and Elite athletes from Olympic sports.

Participants were 32 former GB athletes from Olympic sports, 16 Super-Elite athletes who had won multiple medals at major championships, and 16 matched Elite athletes who had not. In-depth interviews with the athletes, their coaches, and one of their parents explored all psychosocial aspects of their development and careers. Content analyses revealed that there were no differences between Super-Elite and Elite athletes with regard to family values, conscientiousness, or commitment to training. However, the two groups were found to be different with regard to: (1) the experience of a foundational negative life event coupled with a foundational positive sport-related event; (2) the experience of a career turning point that enhanced motivation and focus for their sport; (3) need for success; (4) obsessiveness and/or perfectionism with regard to training and performance; (5) ruthlessness and/or selfishness in the pursuit of their sporting goals; (6) dual focus on both mastery and outcome; (7) the use of counterphobic attitudes and/or total preparation to maintain higher levels of performance under pressure; and (8) the relative importance of sport over other aspects of life. The results are discussed within the context of psychodynamic theory, and recommendations are made for both applied implications and future research.

Great British medalists: Response to the commentaries.

Hardy et al. (2017) reported the findings of a large-scale, multisource, qualitative study that examined the commonalities of, and discriminators between, a group of super-elite (SE) and a group of elite (E) athletes who were matched on gender, sport, discipline, and era. Fifteen research teams who are actively engaged in research in the domain then provided critical commentaries on the target paper. In our response to these commentaries, we briefly remind the reader of the primary findings of the original paper and then deal with the commentaries under the subheadings: Necessary and Sufficient Conditions for Elite Performance; Mediating and Moderating Variables; Methodological Issues; Omissions; and Alternative Approaches. Finally, we discuss the very small number of disagreements that we have with any of the commentaries.

The Great British Medalists Project: A Review of Current Knowledge on the Development of the World's Best Sporting Talent.

The literature base regarding the development of sporting talent is extensive, and includes empirical articles, reviews, position papers, academic books, governing body documents, popular books, unpublished theses and anecdotal evidence, and contains numerous models of talent development. With such a varied body of work, the task for researchers, practitioners and policy makers of generating a clear understanding of what is known and what is thought to be true regarding the development of sporting talent is particularly challenging. Drawing on a wide array of expertise, we address this challenge by avoiding adherence to any specific model or area and by providing a reasoned review across three key overarching topics: (a) the performer; (b) the environment; and (c) practice and training. Within each topic sub-section, we review and calibrate evidence by performance level of the samples. We then conclude each sub-section with a brief summary, a rating of the quality of evidence, a recommendation for practice and suggestions for future research. These serve to highlight both our current level of understanding and our level of confidence in providing practice recommendations, but also point to a need for future studies that could offer evidence regarding the complex interactions that almost certainly exist across domains.

Work-related goal perceptions and affective well-being.

The aim was to clarify how perceptions of work-related goals influence affective well-being and goal commitment. Participants (N = 201) completed a Goal Perceptions Questionnaire and affect scales. A model was refined using structural equation modelling. Value and success expectation substantially mediated the effects of other goal perceptions on affects and commitment. Both value and success expectation increased commitment, but whereas value increased positive affects, success expectation reduced negative affects. The determinants of value (e.g. personal origin) were different from those of success expectation (e.g. personal control). Through astute goal setting, it is possible to promote well-being without compromising commitment.

Persistence and Effort in Moving Achievement Goal Research Forward: A Response to Treasure and Colleagues.

In their response to our recent paper (Harwood, Hardy, & Swain, 2000), Treasure et al. (2001) claimed to have clarified our misconceptions and misrepresentations of achievement goal research. After first of all commenting on the apparently rather emotive nature of their response, we logically deal with each of their criticisms. Specifically, we present sound theoretical arguments to show that: (a) personal theories of achievement hold primacy over achievement goals; (b) we are not "particularly confused" (or even a little confused) in our understanding of conceptions of ability; (c) there are excellent reasons for examining the possibility of a tripartite approach to goal orientation and goal involvement; and (d) the issue of measurement in achievement goal research needs to be carefully reconsidered. Further, in response to the status quo offered by Treasure and colleagues, we call for more innovative research that will help progress the impact of achievement goal theory in competitive sport.

A Neuropsychological Model of Mentally Tough Behavior.

Four studies were conducted with two primary objectives: (a) to conceptualize and measure mental toughness from a behavioral perspective and (b) to apply relevant personality theory to the examination of between-person differences in mentally tough behavior. Studies 1 (N = 305 participants from a range of different sports) and 2 (N = 110 high-level cricketers) focused on the development of an informant-rated mental toughness questionnaire that assessed individual differences in ability to maintain or enhance performance under pressure from a wide range of stressors. Studies 3 (N = 214) and 4 (N = 196) examined the relationship between reinforcement sensitivities and mentally tough behavior in high-level cricketers. The highest levels of mental toughness reported by coaches occurred when cricketers were sensitive to punishment and insensitive to reward. Study 4 suggested that such players are predisposed to identify threatening stimuli early, which gives them the best possible opportunity to prepare an effective response to the pressurized environments they encounter. The findings show that high-level cricketers who are punishment sensitive, but not reward sensitive, detect threat early and can maintain goal-directed behavior under pressure from a range of different stressors.

Stressors, social support, and tests of the buffering hypothesis: effects on psychological responses of injured athletes.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this article was to examine the main and stress-buffering effect relationships between social support and psychological responses to injury. DESIGN: The article presents two studies, both of which matched social support types with injury stressors. Study 1 used measures of stressors, perception of social support availability, and psychological responses of injured athletes. Study 2 utilized measures of stressors, received social support, and psychological responses of injured athletes. METHODS: During physiotherapy clinic visits, injured athletes (Study 1, N = 319; Study 2, N = 302) completed measures of stressors, social support, and psychological responses to injury. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and moderated hierarchical regression were used to analyse the data. RESULTS: In both studies, CFA suggested adequate model fit for measures of social support and psychological responses to injury. Moderated hierarchical regression analyses in Study 1 revealed significant (p < .05) stress-buffering effects for the perception of available esteem support in relation to restlessness, isolation, and feeling cheated, and the perception of emotional support in relation to isolation. In both studies, moderated hierarchical regression analyses revealed significant (p < .05) main effects for esteem, emotional, and tangible support in relation to restlessness, isolation, and feeling cheated. CONCLUSION: The findings of the current studies enhance our understanding of the stress-buffering effects of social support in relation to injury stressors and psychological responses; that is, the relationships between social support, stressors, and psychological responses to sport injury may differ with regard to received or perceived available support. The findings have important implications for the design of social support interventions with injured athletes aimed at alleviating the detrimental effects of injury stressors. STATEMENT OF CONTRIBUTION: What is already known on this subject? The health, social, and sport-injury related research suggests that social support has the potential to moderate (i.e., buffer) those psychological responses to stress that are detrimental to health and well-being. Despite what is a growing body of empirical research that has explored the role of social support in a sport injury context, there has been a paucity of research that has examined how social support functions in relation to injury-related stressors and psychological responses, particularly with regard to the effect of perceived and received support. In addition, there has been limited regard for current conceptualizations of social support as well as injured athletes, psychological responses in the measurement strategies adopted and measures employed. What does this study add? Enhances our understanding of the stress-buffering effects of perceived and received social support in sport. Provides support for the functional aspects of perceived support when dealing with injury-related stressors. Has important implications for the design of social support interventions that aim to expedite injured athletes successful return to sport.