Emergency medicine registrar training in Africa: overview of programmes, faculty and sustainability.

BACKGROUND: The specialty of emergency medicine (EM) is new in most African countries, where emergency medicine registrar (residency) programmes (EMRPs) are at different stages of evolution and little is known about the programmes. Identifying and describing these EMRPs will facilitate planning for sustainability, collaborative efforts and curriculum development for existing and future programmes. Our objective was to identify and provide an overview of existing EMRPs in Africa and their applicant requirements, faculty characteristics and plans for sustainability. METHODS: We conducted a descriptive cross-sectional survey of Africa's EMRPs between January and December 2017, identifying programmes through an online search supplemented by discussions with African EM leaders. Leaders of all identified African EMRPs were invited to participate. Data were collected prospectively using a structured survey and are summarised with descriptive statistics. RESULTS: We identified 15 programmes in 12 countries and received survey responses from 11 programmes in 10 countries. Eight of the responding EMRPs began in 2010 or later. Only 36% of the EMRPs offer a 3-year programme. Women make up an average of 33% of faculty. Only 40% of EMRPs require faculty to be EM specialists. In smaller samples that reported the relevant data, 67% (4/6) of EMRPs have EM specialists who trained in that EMRP programme making up more than half of their faculty; 57% of Africa's 288 EMRP graduates to date are men; and an average of 39% of EMRP graduates stay on as faculty for 78% (7/9) of EMRPs. CONCLUSION: EMRPs currently produce most of their own EM faculty. Almost equal proportions of men and women have graduated from a predominantly >3-year training programme. Graduates have a variety of opportunities in academia and private practice. Future assessments may wish to focus on the evolution of these programme' curricula, faculty composition and graduates' career options.

m-Health for Burn Injury Consultations in a Low-Resource Setting: An Acceptability Study Among Health Care Providers.

Introduction:The rapid adoption of smartphones, especially in low- and middle-income countries, has opened up novel ways to deliver health care, including diagnosis and management of burns. This study was conducted to measure acceptability and to identify factors that influence health care provider's attitudes toward m-health technology for emergency care of burn patients.Methods:An extended version of the technology acceptance model (TAM) was used to assess the acceptability toward using m-health for burns. A questionnaire was distributed to health professionals at four hospitals in Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania. The questionnaire was based on several validated instruments and has previously been adopted for the sub-Saharan context. It measured constructs, including acceptability, usefulness, ease of use, social influences, and voluntariness. Univariate analysis was used to test our proposed hypotheses, and structural equation modeling was used to test the extended version of TAM.Results:In our proposed test-model based on TAM, we found a significant relationship between compatibility-usefulness and usefulness-attitudes. The univariate analysis further revealed some differences between subgroups. Almost all health professionals in our sample already use smartphones for work purposes and were positive about using smartphones for burn consultations. Despite participants perceiving the application to be easy to use, they suggested that training and ongoing support should be available. Barriers mentioned include access to wireless internet and access to hospital-provided smartphones.

The test characteristics of physician clinical gestalt for determining the presence and severity of anaemia in patients seen at the emergency department of a tertiary referral hospital in Tanzania.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the test characteristics of clinical gestalt for detecting the presence and severity of anaemia in emergency department patients at a tertiary referral hospital in Tanzania. METHODS: This prospective study enrolled a convenience sample of emergency department patients who had a complete blood count ordered by the treating physician in the course of their clinical care. Physicians recorded their impression of the presence and severity of anaemia before viewing the laboratory results. To assess interobserver agreement, a second physician provided their blinded gestalt impression of the patient's haemoglobin level. RESULTS: We enrolled 216 patients and complete data were available for 210 patients (97%), 59% male, median age 30 years. The range of measured haemoglobin values was 1.5-15.4 g/dL. The physicians rated anaemia mild or absent in 74 (35%), moderate in 72 (34%) and severe in 64 patients (30%). These estimates were significantly concordant with the laboratory haemoglobin measurements (Kendall's τ b=0.63, 95% CI 0.57 to 0.69, p<0.0001). The test characteristics of physician gestalt estimates for severe anaemia were: sensitivity 64% (95% CI 53% to 74%), specificity 91% (95% CI 85% to 96%), positive likelihood ratio of 7.4 (95% CI 4.2 to 13.3) and negative likelihood ratio of 0.40 (0.3 to 0.5). The weighted Cohen's κ for interobserver agreement between physicians on the gestalt estimate of the degree of anaemia was 0.87 (95% CI 0.76 to 0.98). CONCLUSION: Physicians' estimates of the severity of anaemia were significantly concordant with laboratory haemoglobin measurements. Sensitivity of the gestalt estimate for severe anaemia was moderate. Interobserver agreement was 'almost perfect'.

Scaling silicon photonic switch fabrics for data center interconnection networks.

With the rapidly increasing aggregate bandwidth requirements of data centers there is a growing interest in the insertion of optically interconnected networks with high-radix transparent optical switch fabrics. Silicon photonics is a particularly promising and applicable technology due to its small footprint, CMOS compatibility, high bandwidth density, and the potential for nanosecond scale dynamic connectivity. In this paper we analyze the feasibility of building silicon photonic microring based switch fabrics for data center scale optical interconnection networks. We evaluate the scalability of a microring based switch fabric for WDM signals. Critical parameters including crosstalk, insertion loss and switching speed are analyzed, and their sensitivity with respect to device parameters is examined. We show that optimization of physical layer parameters can reduce crosstalk and increase switch fabric scalability. Our analysis indicates that with current state-of-the-art devices, a high radix 128 × 128 silicon photonic single chip switch fabric with tolerable power penalty is feasible. The applicability of silicon photonic microrings for data center switching is further supported via review of microring operations and control demonstrations. The challenges and opportunities for this technology platform are discussed.

Out-of-pocket cost for medical care of injured patients presenting to emergency department of national hospital in Tanzania: a prospective cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: We aimed to determine the out-of-pocket (OOP) costs for medical care of injured patients and the proportion of patients encountering catastrophic costs. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study SETTING: Emergency department (ED) of a tertiary-level hospital in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. PARTICIPANTS: Injured adult patients seen at the ED of Muhimbili National Hospital from August 2019 to March 2020. METHODS: During alternating 12-hour shifts, consecutive trauma patients were approached in the ED after stabilisation. A case report form was used to collect social-demographics and patient clinical profile. Total charges billed for ED and in-hospital care and OOP payments were obtained from the hospital billing system. Patients were interviewed by phone to determine the measures they took to pay their bills. PRIMARY OUTCOME MEASURE: The primary outcome was the proportion of patients with catastrophic health expenditure (CHE), using the WHO definition of OOP expenditures ≥40% of monthly income. RESULTS: We enrolled 355 trauma patients of whom 51 (14.4%) were insured. The median age was 32 years (IQR 25-40), 238 (83.2%) were male, 162 (56.6%) were married and 87.8% had ≥2 household dependents. The majority 224 (78.3%) had informal employment with a median monthly income of US$86. Overall, 286 (80.6%) had OOP expenses for their care. 95.1% of all patients had an Injury Severity Score <16 among whom OOP payments were US$176.98 (IQR 62.33-311.97). Chest injury and spinal injury incurred the highest OOP payments of US$282.63 (84.71-369.33) and 277.71 (191.02-874.47), respectively. Overall, 85.3% had a CHE. 203 patients (70.9%) were interviewed after discharge. In this group, 13.8% borrowed money from family, and 12.3% sold personal items of value to pay for their hospital bills. CONCLUSION: OOP costs place a significant economic burden on individuals and families. Measures to reduce injury and financial risk are needed in Tanzania.

Clinical profile and mortality among adult patients presenting with altered mental status to the emergency departments of a tertiary hospital in Tanzania: a descriptive cohort study.

Introduction: Altered mental status (AMS) in the Emergency Department (ED) can be associated with morbidity and mortality. In high income countries, mortality rate is under 10% for patients presenting with AMS. There is a paucity of data on the profile and mortality amongst this group of patients in limited income countries. Methods: this was a prospective cohort study of adults ≥18 years presenting to the Emergency Departments of Muhimbili National Hospital (MNH) Upanga and Mloganzila in Tanzania with Altered Mental Status (AMS) unrelated to psychiatric illness or trauma, from August 2019 to February 2020. Patient demographic data, clinical profile, disposition and 7-day outcome were recorded. The outcome of mortality was summarized using descriptive statistics. Results: among 26,125 patients presenting during the study period, 2,311 (8.9%) patients had AMS and after exclusion for trauma and psychiatric etiology, 226 (9.8%) patients were included. The median age was 56 years (43-69 years) and 127 (56.2%) were male. Confusion 88 (38.9%) was the most common presenting symptom. Hypertension 121 (53.5%) was the most frequent associated comorbidity. The overall mortality was 80 (35.4%) within 7 days. Of 173 patients admitted to the wards, 54 (31.2%) died and of the 46 (20.4%) admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU), 20 (43.5%) died within 7 days. Six (2.7%) patients died in the emergency department. Conclusion: patients with AMS presenting to two EDs in Tanzania have substantially higher mortality than reported from Hospital Incident Command System (HICS). This could be due to underlying disease, comorbidities or management. Further research could help identify individual etiologies involved and high risk groups which can cater to better understanding this population.

Colon perforation by foreign body insertion for sexual gratification: a case report.

Occurrence of retained rectal foreign bodies with bowel perforation resulting from auto-eroticism is rare among males in Africa. Embarrassment attached to this condition may delay or derail acquisition of information and management. A 30-year-old male presented with abdominal pain and constipation for 3 days. Abdominal X-rays revealed free air-stripes under both hemidiaphragms and in the peripherals, a 25cm x 5.9cm lucent foreign body on the left side with proximal tapering. There was no evidence of intestinal obstruction. This was consistent with bowel perforation secondary to foreign body introduction. Exploratory laparotomy was performed, a plastic bottle of 250mls was removed from the colon. Transverse repair of a 10cm laceration extending from the rectum to the sigmoid was done and a colostomy placed. A high index of suspicion, a systematic approach and a lower threshold for imaging studies were key to successful management and favorable outcomes of this patient.

Impact of point-of-care ultrasound on clinical decision-making at an urban emergency department in Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Point of care ultrasound (PoCUS) is an efficient, inexpensive, safe, and portable imaging modality that can be particularly useful in resource-limited settings. However, its impact on clinical decision making in such settings has not been well studied. The objective of this study is to describe the utilization and impact of PoCUS on clinical decision making at an urban emergency department in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. METHODS: This was a prospective descriptive cross-sectional study of patients receiving PoCUS at Muhimbili National Hospital's Emergency Medical Department (MNH EMD). Data on PoCUS studies during a period of 10 months at MNH EMD was collected on consecutive patients during periods when research assistants were available. Data collected included patient age and sex, indications for ultrasound, findings, interpretations, and provider-reported diagnostic impression and disposition plan before and after PoCUS. Descriptive statistics, including medians and interquartile ranges, and counts and percentages, are reported. Pearson chi squared tests and p-values were used to evaluate categorical data for significant differences. RESULTS: PoCUS data was collected for 986 studies performed on 784 patients. Median patient age was 32 years; 56% of patients were male. Top indications for PoCUS included trauma, respiratory presentations, and abdomino-pelvic pain. The most frequent study types performed were eFAST, cardiac, and obstetric or gynaecologic studies. Overall, clinicians reported that the use of PoCUS changed either diagnostic impression or disposition plan in 29% of all cases. Rates of change in diagnostic impression or disposition plan increased to 45% in patients for whom more than one PoCUS study type was performed. CONCLUSIONS: In resource-limited emergency care settings, PoCUS can be utilized for a wide range of indications and has substantial impact on clinical decision making, especially when more than one study type is performed.

Tianeptine increases brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression in the rat amygdala.

Chronic restraint stress affects hippocampal and amygdalar synaptic plasticity as determined by electrophysiological, morphological and behavioral measures, changes that are inhibited by some but not all antidepressants. The efficacy of some classes of antidepressants is proposed to involve increased phosphorylation of cAMP response element binding protein (CREB), leading to increased expression of neurotrophic factors, such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Conversely, some studies suggest that acute and chronic stress downregulate BDNF expression and activity. Accordingly, the aim of the current study was to examine total and phosphorylated CREB (pCREB), as well as BDNF mRNA and protein levels in the hippocampus and amygdala of rats subjected to chronic restraint stress in the presence and absence of the antidepressant tianeptine. In the hippocampus, chronic restraint stress increased pCREB levels without affecting BDNF mRNA or protein expression. Tianeptine administration had no effect upon these measures in the hippocampus. In the amygdala, BDNF mRNA expression was not modulated in chronic restraint stress rats given saline in spite of increased pCREB levels. Conversely, BDNF mRNA levels were increased in the amygdala of chronic restraint stress/tianeptine rats in the absence of changes in pCREB levels when compared to non-stressed controls. Amygdalar BDNF protein increased while pCREB levels decreased in tianeptine-treated rats irrespective of stress conditions. Collectively, these results demonstrate that tianeptine concomitantly decreases pCREB while increasing BDNF expression in the rat amygdala, increases in neurotrophic factor expression that may participate in the enhancement of amygdalar synaptic plasticity mediated by tianeptine.

Subdissociative intranasal ketamine plus standard pain therapy versus standard pain therapy in the treatment of paediatric sickle cell disease vaso-occlusive crises in resource-limited settings: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial.

INTRODUCTION: Pediatric sickle cell disease, highly prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa, carries great morbidity and mortality risk. Limited resources and monitoring make management of acute vaso-occlusive crises challenging. This study aims to evaluate the efficacy and safety of subdissociative intranasal ketamine as a cheap, readily available and easily administered adjunct to standard pain therapy. We hypothesise that subdissociative, intranasal ketamine may significantly augment current approaches to pain management in resource-limited settings in a safe and cost-effective manner. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: This is a multicentred, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial enrolling children 4-16 years of age with sickle cell disease and painful vaso-occlusive pain crises. Study sites include two sub-Saharan teaching and referral hospitals with acute intake areas. All patients receive standard analgesic therapy during evaluation. Patients randomised to the treatment arm receive 1 mg/kg intranasal ketamine at onset of therapy, while placebo arm participants receive volume-matched intranasal normal saline. All participants and clinical staff are blinded to the treatment allocation. Data will be analysed on an intention-to-treat basis. Primary endpoints are changes in self-report pain scales (Faces Pain Scale-Revised) at 30, 60 and 120 minutes and rates of adverse events. Secondary endpoints include hospital length of stay, total analgesia use and quality of life assessment 2-3 weeks postintervention. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: The research methods for this study have been approved by the Cameroon Baptist Convention Health Board Institutional Review Board (IRB2015-07), the Tanzanian National Institute for Medical Research (NIMR/HQ/R.8a/Vol. IX/2299), Muhimbili National Hospital IRB (MNH/IRB/I/2015/14) and the Tanzanian Food and Drugs Authority (TFDA0015/CTR/0015/9). Data reports will be provided to the Data and Safety Monitoring Board (DSMB) periodically throughout the study as well as all reports of adverse events. All protocol amendments will also be reviewed by the DSMB. Study results, regardless of direction or amplitude, will be submitted for publication in relevant peer-reviewed journals. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.Gov, NCT02573714. Date of registration: 8 October 2015. Pre-results.

Predicting Fluid Responsiveness Using Bedside Ultrasound Measurements of the Inferior Vena Cava and Physician Gestalt in the Emergency Department of an Urban Public Hospital in Sub-Saharan Africa.

BACKGROUND: Bedside inferior vena cava (IVC) ultrasound has been proposed as a non-invasive measure of volume status. We compared ultrasound measurements of the caval index (CI) and physician gestalt to predict blood pressure response in patients requiring intravenous fluid resuscitation. METHODS: This was a prospective study of adult emergency department patients requiring fluid resuscitation. A structured data sheet was used to record serial vital signs and the treating clinician's impression of patient volume status and cause of hypotension. Bedside ultrasound CI measurements were performed at baseline and after each 500mL of fluid. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis was performed to characterize the relationship between CI and Physician gestalt, and the change in mean arterial pressure (MAP). RESULTS: We enrolled 364 patients, 52% male, mean age 36 years. Indications for fluid resuscitation were haemorrhage (54%), dehydration (30%), and sepsis (17%). Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis found optimal CI cut-off values of 45%, 52% and 53% to predict a MAP rise of 5, 8 and 10 mmHg per litre of fluid, respectively. The sensitivity and specificity of CI of 50% for predicting a 10mmHg increase in MAP per litre were 88% (95%CI 81-93%) and 73% (95%CI 67-79%), respectively, area under the curve (AUC) = 0.85 (0.81-0.89). The sensitivity and specificity of physician gestalt estimate of volume depletion severity were 68% (95%CI 60-75%) and 86% (95%CI 80-90%), respectively, AUC = 0.83 (95% CI: 0.79-0.87). Those with a baseline CI ≥ 50% (51% of patients) had a 2.8-fold greater fluid responsiveness than those with a baseline CI<50% (p<0.0001). CONCLUSION: Ultrasound measurement of the CI can predict blood pressure response among patients requiring intravenous fluid resuscitation and may be useful in early identification of patients who will benefit most from volume resuscitation, and those who will likely require other interventions.

Bedside ultrasound training at Muhimbili National Hospital in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania and Hospital San Carlos in Chiapas, Mexico.

INTRODUCTION: In resource-rich settings, bedside ultrasound has rapidly evolved to be a crucial part of emergency centre practice and a growing part of critical care practice. This portable and affordable technology may be even more valuable in resource-limited environments where other imaging modalities are inaccessible, but the optimal amount of training required to achieve competency in bedside ultrasound is largely unknown. We sought to evaluate the feasibility of implementation of a mixed-modality bedside ultrasound training course for emergency and generalist acute care physicians in limited resource settings, and to provide a description of our core course components, including specific performance goals, to facilitate implementation of similar initiatives. METHODS: We conducted a standardised training course at two distinct sites-one large, urban tertiary hospital in Tanzania with a dedicated Emergency Centre, and one small, rural, hospital in southern Mexico with a general, acute intake area. We report on pre-training ultrasound use at both sites, as well as pre- and post-training views on most useful indications. RESULTS: Overall, participants were very satisfied with the course, although approximately one-third of the providers at both sites would have preferred more hands-on training. All participants passed a standardised exam requiring image acquisition and interpretation. DISCUSSION: Introducing bedside ultrasound training in two distinct resource-limited settings was feasible and well-received. After a brief intensive period of training, participants successfully passed a comprehensive examination, including demonstration of standardised image acquisition and accurate interpretation of normal and abnormal studies.

INTRODUCTION: Dans les contextes riches en ressources, l'échographie au chevet du patient a rapidement évolué pour devenir un élément essentiel de la pratique en centre d'urgence et un élément d'importance croissante de la pratique des soins de courte durée. Cette technologie portable et abordable peut être encore plus précieuse dans des environnements limités en ressources où d'autres modes d'imagerie sont inaccessibles, mais la quantité optimale de formation nécessaire pour atteindre une compétence suffisante en échographie au chevet du patient est largement inconnue. Nous avons cherché à évaluer la faisabilité de la mise en œuvre d'un cours de formation en échographie au chevet du patient à modes mixtes pour les médecins de soins de courte durée d'urgence et généralistes dans un contexte aux ressources limitées, et à fournir une description des composantes de notre cours fondamental, notamment en termes d'objectifs de performance spécifiques, afin de faciliter la mise en œuvre d'initiatives similaires. MÉTHODES: Nous avons effectué un stage de formation normalisé sur deux sites distincts - un grand hôpital urbain tertiaire en Tanzanie équipé d'un Centre d'urgence dédié, et un petit hôpital rural au sud du Mexique ayant une zone d'admission de soins généraux intensifs. Nous établissons un rapport sur l'utilisation de l'échographie en pré-formation sur les deux sites, ainsi que sur les avis formulés avant et après la formation à propos des indications les plus utiles. RÉSULTATS: Dans l'ensemble, les participants étaient très satisfaits du cours, bien qu'environ un tiers des fournisseurs sur les deux sites auraient préféré plus de formation pratique. Tous les participants ont réussi un examen normalisé requérant une acquisition et une interprétation d'images. DISCUSSION: La fourniture d'une formation en échographie au chevet des patients dans deux contextes distincts aux ressources limitées était faisable et bien reçue. Après une brève période intensive de formation, les participants ont réussi un examen complet, incluant notamment la démonstration de l'acquisition d'image normalisée et de l'interprétation exacte d'études normales et anormale.

Exposure of pregnant women to cookstove-related household air pollution in urban and periurban Trujillo, Peru.

Although evidence suggests associations between maternal exposure to air pollution and adverse birth outcomes, pregnant women's exposure to household air pollution in developing countries is understudied. Personal exposures of pregnant women (N = 100) in Trujillo, Peru, to air pollutants and their indoor concentrations were measured. The effects of stove-use-related characteristics and ambient air pollution on exposure were determined using mixed-effects models. Significant differences in 48-hour kitchen concentrations of particulate matter (PM2.5), carbon monoxide (CO), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) concentrations were observed across fuel types (p < 0.05). Geometric mean PM2.5 concentrations where 112 µg/m(3) (confidence limits [CLs]: 52, 242 µg/m(3)) and 42 µg/m(3) (21, 82 µg/m(3)) in homes where wood and gas were used, respectively. PM2.5 exposure was at levels that recent exposure-response analyses suggest may not result in substantial reduction in health risks even in homes where cleaner burning gas stoves were used.

Breath analysis by mass spectrometry: a new tool for breast cancer detection?

Breath analysis has received attention as a noninvasive diagnostic tool with increasing research into its potential usefulness. We are investigating the utility of the analysis of breath volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as an effective modality for breast cancer (BC) detection and monitoring by collecting breath samples with a simple portable device to determine whether BC patients have breath VOCs distinct from those in healthy volunteers. We prospectively enrolled 20 healthy volunteers and 20 newly diagnosed stage II-IV BC patients. The study subjects deeply exhaled into a commercially available Teflon/valved breath sampler equipped with a rapid passive diffusive sampler five times at 5-minute intervals trapping alveolar breath VOCs. The exhaled breath samples were analyzed by thermal desorption/gas chromatography/mass spectrometry monitoring 383 VOCs in the breath of both populations. Our results indicate that aggregate low-dimensional summaries and compound quantities result in specific patterns that can confirm BC. We found a definite clustering of the presence of BC from cancer-free points. Overall sensitivity was 72 per cent and specificity was 64 per cent resulting in a correct classification rate of approximately 77 per cent. Our data show promising evidence that BC patients can be differentiated from healthy volunteers through distinct breath VOCs.

Risk of recurrent stroke, myocardial infarction, or death in hospitalized stroke patients.

OBJECTIVE: This study examines the risk of recurrent stroke, myocardial infarction (MI), vascular death, or all-cause death after hospitalized stroke in South Carolina. METHODS: Patients with a primary diagnosis of stroke discharged from the year 2002 were identified from the state hospital discharge database. Kaplan-Meier estimates of recurrent stroke, MI, vascular death, all-cause death, and composite events were calculated at 1 month, 6 months, 1 year, 2 years, 3 years, and 4 years. Prognostic factors were assessed with multivariate Cox proportional hazard models. RESULTS: The search strategy identified 10,399 patients in 2002. The Kaplan-Meier estimate of cumulative risk at 1 month, 6 months, 1 year, 2 years, 3 years, and 4 years for recurrent stroke is 1.8%, 5.0%, 8.0%, 12.1%, 15.2%, and 18.1%; MI, 0.3%, 1.0%, 2.1%, 3.7%, 5.0%, and 6.2%; all-cause death, 14.6%, 20.6%, 24.5%, 30.9%, 36.2%, and 41.3%; vascular death, 11.4%, 14.8%, 17.1%, 20.7%, 23.8%, and 26.7%; and composite events of recurrent stroke, MI, or vascular death 13.6%, 19.5%, 24.7%, 31.6%, 36.8%, and 41.3%. The hazard ratio for composite events (recurrent stroke, MI, or death) increases with age (1.38, 1.35-1.41), is 1.12 (1.05-1.19) for African Americans compared to Caucasians, is 1.67 (1.57-1.77) for patients with a higher comorbidity index (> or = 2 vs <2), and is 1.34 (1.28-1.39) for patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage or intracerebral hemorrhage compared with ischemic stroke. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest there is room for further improvement in secondary stroke prevention in South Carolina.