Development and evaluation of the Cantonese matrix sentence test.

OBJECTIVE: To develop the Cantonese matrix (YUEmatrix) test according to the international standard procedure and examine possible different outcomes in another tonal language. DESIGN: A 50-word Cantonese base-matrix was established. Word-specific speech recognition functions, speech recognition thresholds (SRT), and slopes were obtained. The speech material was homogenised in intelligibility by applying level corrections up to ± 3 dB. Subsequently, the YUEmatrix test was evaluated in five aspects: training effect, test-list equivalence, test-retest reliability, establishment of reference data for normal-hearing Cantonese-speakers, and comparison with the Cantonese-Hearing-In-Noise-Test. STUDY SAMPLE: Overall, 64 normal-hearing native Cantonese-speaking listeners. RESULTS: SRT measurements with adaptive procedures resulted in a reference SRT of -9.7 ± 0.7 dB SNR for open-set and -11.1 ± 1.2 dB SNR for the closed-set response format. Fixed SNR measurements suggested a test-specific speech intelligibility function slope of 15.5 ± 0.7%/dB. Seventeen 10-sentences base test lists were confirmed to be equivalent with respect to speech intelligibility. Training effect was not observed after two measurements of 20-sentences lists. CONCLUSIONS: The YUEmatrix yields comparable results to matrix tests in other languages including Mandarin. Level adjustments to homogenise sentences appear to be less effective for tonal languages than for most other languages developed so far.

Construction and evaluation of the Mandarin Chinese matrix (CMNmatrix) sentence test for the assessment of speech recognition in noise.

OBJECTIVE: Development of the Mandarin Chinese matrix (CMNmatrix) sentence test for speech intelligibility measurements in noise according to the international standard procedure. DESIGN: A 50-word base matrix representing the distribution of phonemes and lexical tones of spoken Mandarin was established. Hundred sentences capturing all the co-articulations of two consecutive words were recorded. Word-specific speech recognition functions, speech reception thresholds (SRT: signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), that provides 50% speech intelligibility) and slopes were obtained from measurements at fixed SNRs. The speech material was homogenised in intelligibility by applying level corrections up to ± 2 dB. Subsequently, the CMNmatrix test was evaluated, the comparability of test lists was measured at two fixed SNRs. To investigate the training effect and establish the reference data, speech recognition was measured adaptively. STUDY SAMPLE: Overall, the study sample contained 80 normal-hearing native Mandarin-speaking listeners. RESULTS: Multi-centre evaluation measurements confirmed that test lists are equivalent in intelligibility, with a mean SRT of -10.1 ± 0.1 dB SNR and a slope of 13.1 ± 0.9 %/dB. The reference SRT is -9.3 ± 0.8 and -11.2 ± 1.2 dB SNR for the open- and closed-set response format, respectively. CONCLUSION: The CMNmatrix test is suitable for accurate and internationally comparable speech recognition measurements in noise.

Talker- and language-specific effects on speech intelligibility in noise assessed with bilingual talkers: Which language is more robust against noise and reverberation?

OBJECTIVE: Investigate talker- and language-specific aspects of speech intelligibility in noise and reverberation using highly comparable matrix sentence tests across languages. DESIGN: Matrix sentences spoken by German/Russian and German/Spanish bilingual talkers were recorded. These sentences were used to measure speech reception thresholds (SRTs) with native listeners in the respective languages in different listening conditions (stationary and fluctuating noise, multi-talker babble, reverberated speech-in-noise condition). STUDY SAMPLE: Four German/Russian and four German/Spanish bilingual talkers; 20 native German-speaking, 10 native Russian-speaking, and 10 native Spanish-speaking listeners. RESULTS: Across-talker SRT differences of up to 6 dB were found for both groups of bilinguals. SRTs of German/Russian bilingual talkers were the same in both languages. SRTs of German/Spanish bilingual talkers were higher when they talked in Spanish than when they talked in German. The benefit from listening in the gaps was similar across all languages. The detrimental effect of reverberation was larger for Spanish than for German and Russian. CONCLUSIONS: Within the limitations set by the number and slight accentedness of talkers and other possible confounding factors, talker- and test-condition-dependent differences were isolated from the language effect: Russian and German exhibited similar intelligibility in noise and reverberation, whereas Spanish was more impaired in these situations.

Matrix sentence intelligibility prediction using an automatic speech recognition system.

OBJECTIVE: The feasibility of predicting the outcome of the German matrix sentence test for different types of stationary background noise using an automatic speech recognition (ASR) system was studied. DESIGN: Speech reception thresholds (SRT) of 50% intelligibility were predicted in seven noise conditions. The ASR system used Mel-frequency cepstral coefficients as a front-end and employed whole-word Hidden Markov models on the back-end side. The ASR system was trained and tested with noisy matrix sentences on a broad range of signal-to-noise ratios. STUDY SAMPLE: The ASR-based predictions were compared to data from the literature ( Hochmuth et al, 2015 ) obtained with 10 native German listeners with normal hearing and predictions of the speech intelligibility index (SII). RESULTS: The ASR-based predictions showed a high and significant correlation (R² = 0.95, p < 0.001) with the empirical data across different noise conditions, outperforming the SII-based predictions which showed no correlation with the empirical data (R² = 0.00, p = 0.987). CONCLUSIONS: The SRTs for the German matrix test for listeners with normal hearing in different stationary noise conditions could well be predicted based on the acoustical properties of the speech and noise signals. Minimum assumptions were made about human speech processing already incorporated in a reference-free ordinary ASR system.

Influence of noise type on speech reception thresholds across four languages measured with matrix sentence tests.

OBJECTIVE: To compare speech reception thresholds (SRTs) in noise using matrix sentence tests in four languages: German, Spanish, Russian, Polish. DESIGN: The four tests were composed of equivalent five-word sentences and were all designed and optimized using the same principles. Six stationary speech-shaped noises and three non-stationary noises were used as maskers. STUDY SAMPLE: Forty native listeners with normal hearing: 10 for each language. RESULTS: SRTs were about 3 dB higher for the German and Spanish tests than for the Russian and Polish tests when stationary noise was used that matched the long-term frequency spectrum of the respective speech test materials. This general SRT difference was also observed for the other stationary noises. The within-test variability across noise conditions differed between languages. About 56% of the observed variance was predicted by the speech intelligibility index. The observed SRT benefit in fluctuating noise was similar for all tests, with a slightly smaller benefit for the Spanish test. CONCLUSIONS: Of the stationary noises employed, noise with the same spectrum as the speech yielded the best masking. SRT differences across languages and noises could be attributed in part to spectral differences. These findings provide the feasibility and limits of comparing audiological results across languages.

Development and evaluation of the Turkish matrix sentence test.

OBJECTIVES: The Turkish matrix sentence test, TURMatrix, was developed for precise, internationally comparable speech intelligibility testing. DESIGN: The TURMatrix comprises a base matrix of ten well-known Turkish names, numbers, adjectives, objects, verbs, from which syntactically fixed sentences were randomly composed. Test conduction may be in an open-set (standard), or closed-set response format. Homogeneity in intelligibility of the test material was optimized by applying level adaptations (maximal ± 3 dB) based on word-specific speech reception thresholds (SRTs). Test list equivalence was verified and reference values were determined. STUDY SAMPLE: Thirty-eight native listeners of Turkish with normal hearing. RESULTS: After training, mean SRT and slope of the final test lists were -8.3 ± 0.2 dB SNR and 14.1 ± 1.0%/dB, respectively (fixed SNR measurements; inter-list variability). For adaptive measurements, average across listeners was -7.2 ± 0.7 dB SNR in the open-set and -7.9 ± 0.7 dB SNR in the closed-set response format. Mean SRT for adaptive measurements in the open-set response format in quiet was 20.3 ± 4.1 dB. Individual SRTs in quiet correlated more closely with audiograms than with SRTs in noise. CONCLUSIONS: The TURMatrix was developed according to European standards and provides reliable speech intelligibility measurements in noise and quiet.

An Italian matrix sentence test for the evaluation of speech intelligibility in noise.

OBJECTIVE: Development of an Italian matrix sentence test for the assessment of speech intelligibility in noise. DESIGN: The development of the test included the selection, recording, optimization with level adjustment, and evaluation of speech material. The training effect was assessed adaptively during the evaluation measurements with six lists of 20 sentences, using open- and closed-set response formats. Reference data were established for normal-hearing listeners with adaptive measurements. Equivalence of the test lists was investigated using the open-set response format at three signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs). STUDY SAMPLE: A total of 55 normal-hearing Italian mother-tongue listeners. RESULTS: The evaluation measurements at fixed SNRs resulted in a mean speech reception threshold (SRT) of -7.3 ± 0.2 dB SNR and slope of 13.3 ± 1.2 %/dB. The major training effect of 1.5 dB was observed for the first two consecutive measurements. Mean SRTs of -6.7 ± 0.7 dB SNR and -7.4 ± 0.7 dB SNR were found from the third to the sixth adaptive measurement for open- and closed-set test response formats, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: A good agreement has been found between the SRTs and slope and those of other matrix tests. Since sentences are difficult to memorize, the Italian matrix test is suitable for repeated measurements.

The multilingual matrix test: Principles, applications, and comparison across languages: A review.

OBJECTIVE: A review of the development, evaluation, and application of the so-called 'matrix sentence test' for speech intelligibility testing in a multilingual society is provided. The format allows for repeated use with the same patient in her or his native language even if the experimenter does not understand the language. DESIGN: Using a closed-set format, the syntactically fixed, semantically unpredictable sentences (e.g. 'Peter bought eight white ships') provide a vocabulary of 50 words (10 alternatives for each position in the sentence). The principles (i.e. construction, optimization, evaluation, and validation) for 14 different languages are reviewed. Studies of the influence of talker, language, noise, the training effect, open vs. closed conduct of the test, and the subjects' language proficiency are reported and application examples are discussed. RESULTS: The optimization principles result in a steep intelligibility function and a high homogeneity of the speech materials presented and test lists employed, yielding a high efficiency and excellent comparability across languages. The characteristics of speakers generally dominate the differences across languages. CONCLUSION: The matrix test format with the principles outlined here is recommended for producing efficient, reliable, and comparable speech reception thresholds across different languages.

A Spanish matrix sentence test for assessing speech reception thresholds in noise.

OBJECTIVE: To develop, optimize, and evaluate a new Spanish sentence test in noise. DESIGN: The test comprises a basic matrix of ten names, verbs, numerals, nouns, and adjectives. From this matrix, test lists of ten sentences with an equal syntactical structure can be formed at random, with each list containing the whole speech material. The speech material represents the phoneme distribution of the Spanish language. The test was optimized for measuring speech reception thresholds (SRTs) in noise by adjusting the presentation levels of the individual words. Subsequently, the test was evaluated by independent measurements investigating the training effects, the comparability of test lists, open-set vs. closed-set test format, and performance of listeners of different Spanish varieties. STUDY SAMPLE: In total, 68 normal-hearing native Spanish-speaking listeners. RESULTS: SRTs measured using an adaptive procedure were 6.2 ± 0.8 dB SNR for the open-set and 7.2 ± 0.7 dB SNR for the closed-set test format. The residual training effect was less than 1 dB after using two double-lists before data collection. CONCLUSIONS: No significant differences were found for listeners of different Spanish varieties indicating that the test is applicable to Spanish as well as Latin American listeners. Test lists can be used interchangeably.

How Face Masks Interfere With Speech Understanding of Normal-Hearing Individuals: Vision Makes the Difference.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effects of wearing a simulated mask on speech perception of normal-hearing subjects. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. SETTING: University hospital. PATIENTS: Fifteen normal-hearing, native German speakers (8 female, 7 male). INTERVENTION: Different experimental conditions with and without simulated face masks using the audiovisual version of the female German Matrix test (Oldenburger Satztest, OLSA). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) at speech intelligibility of 80%. RESULTS: The SNR at which 80% speech intelligibility was achieved deteriorated by a mean of 4.1 dB SNR when simulating a medical mask and by 5.1 dB SNR when simulating a cloth mask in comparison to the audiovisual condition without mask. Interestingly, the contribution of the visual component alone was 2.6 dB SNR and thus had a larger effect than the acoustic component in the medical mask condition. CONCLUSIONS: As expected, speech understanding with face masks was significantly worse than under control conditions. Thus, the speaker's use of face masks leads to a significant deterioration of speech understanding by the normal-hearing listener. The data suggest that these effects may play a role in many everyday situations that typically involve noise.

Challenging Times for Cochlear Implant Users - Effect of Face Masks on Audiovisual Speech Understanding during the COVID-19 Pandemic.

Unhindered auditory and visual signals are essential for a sufficient speech understanding of cochlear implant (CI) users. Face masks are an important hygiene measurement against the COVID-19 virus but disrupt these signals. This study determinates the extent and the mechanisms of speech intelligibility alteration in CI users caused by different face masks. The audiovisual German matrix sentence test was used to determine speech reception thresholds (SRT) in noise in different conditions (audiovisual, audio-only, speechreading and masked audiovisual using two different face masks). Thirty-seven CI users and ten normal-hearing listeners (NH) were included. CI users showed a reduction in speech reception threshold of 5.0 dB due to surgical mask and 6.5 dB due to FFP2 mask compared to the audiovisual condition without mask. The greater proportion of reduction in SRT by mask could be accounted for by the loss of the visual signal (up to 4.5 dB). The effect of each mask was significantly larger in CI users who exclusively hear with their CI (surgical: 7.8 dB, p = 0.005 and FFP2: 8.7 dB, p = 0.01) compared to NH (surgical: 3.8 dB and FFP2: 5.1 dB). This study confirms that CI users who exclusively rely on their CI for hearing are particularly susceptible. Therefore, visual signals should be made accessible for communication whenever possible, especially when communicating with CI users.

Considerations for Fitting Cochlear Implants Bimodally and to the Single-Sided Deaf.

When listening with a cochlear implant through one ear and acoustically through the other, binaural benefits and spatial hearing abilities are generally poorer than in other bilaterally stimulated configurations. With the working hypothesis that binaural neurons require interaurally matched inputs, we review causes for mismatch, their perceptual consequences, and experimental methods for mismatch measurements. The focus is on the three primary interaural dimensions of latency, frequency, and level. Often, the mismatch is not constant, but rather highly stimulus-dependent. We report on mismatch compensation strategies, taking into consideration the specific needs of the respective patient groups. Practical challenges typically faced by audiologists in the proposed fitting procedure are discussed. While improvement in certain areas (e.g., speaker localization) is definitely achievable, a more comprehensive mismatch compensation is a very ambitious endeavor. Even in the hypothetical ideal fitting case, performance is not expected to exceed that of a good bilateral cochlear implant user.

Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Particles (VSOPs) Show Genotoxic Effects but No Functional Impact on Human Adipose Tissue-Derived Stromal Cells (ASCs).

Adipose tissue-derived stromal cells (ASCs) represent a capable source for cell-based therapeutic approaches. For monitoring a cell-based application in vivo, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of cells labeled with iron oxide particles is a common method. It is the aim of the present study to analyze potential DNA damage, cytotoxicity and impairment of functional properties of human (h)ASCs after labeling with citrate-coated very small superparamagnetic iron oxide particles (VSOPs). Cytotoxic as well as genotoxic effects of the labeling procedure were measured in labeled and unlabeled hASCs using the MTT assay, comet assay and chromosomal aberration test. Trilineage differentiation was performed to evaluate an impairment of the differentiation potential due to the particles. Proliferation as well as migration capability were analyzed after the labeling procedure. Furthermore, the labeling of the hASCs was confirmed by Prussian blue staining, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and high-resolution MRI. Below the concentration of 0.6 mM, which was used for the procedure, no evidence of genotoxic effects was found. At 0.6 mM, 1 mM as well as 1.5 mM, an increase in the number of chromosomal aberrations was determined. Cytotoxic effects were not observed at any concentration. Proliferation, migration capability and differentiation potential were also not affected by the procedure. Labeling with VSOPs is a useful labeling method for hASCs that does not affect their proliferation, migration and differentiation potential. Despite the absence of cytotoxicity, however, indications of genotoxic effects have been demonstrated.

Speech-in-noise tests for multilingual hearing screening and diagnostics1.

PURPOSE: New complementary multilingual speech-in-noise tests in Russian, Turkish, and Spanish for hearing self-screening purposes and follow-up hearing diagnostics are compared to the speech tests of the European project, HearCom (Hearing in the Communication Society). METHOD: The tests consist of spoken numbers (Digit Triplet Test; Smits, Kapteyn, & Houtgast, 2004) or sentences (Matrix Test; e.g., Hagerman, 1982) presented in a background noise and estimate the speech reception threshold, which is the signal-to-noise ratio that yields 50% speech intelligibility. All tests were developed according to the HearCom minimum quality standards for speech intelligibility tests. This report presents a cross-language comparison of reference speech intelligibility functions for monaural headphone measurements with normal-hearing listeners. The same model function was employed to describe the speech intelligibility functions for all of the tests. RESULTS: Reference speech intelligibility functions of the new versions of the Digit Triplet Test and Matrix Test show high comparability to the HearCom tests. In order to achieve the highest possible comparability across languages, language- and speaker-dependent factors in speech intelligibility should be compensated for. CONCLUSION: To date, several complementary tests for screening and diagnostics have been developed in several languages. Adhering to the HearCom standards, the tests are highly comparable across languages. For the Matrix Test, equal syntax and linguistic complexity were maintained across languages due to common methodological standards.