Patient Selection for Oesophagectomy: Impact of Age and Comorbidities on Outcome.

INTRODUCTION: Surgical resection of oesophageal cancer is a major procedure with potential for significant morbidity and mortality. Patient selection can be challenging, as operative benefit must be balanced against risk and impact on quality of life. This study defines modern trends in patient selection, and evaluates the impact of age, stage, and comorbidities on complications and survival following oesophagectomy, in a tertiary Australian experience. METHODS: Data were compiled across two 15-year operative eras ('Era 1': 1981-1995; and 'Era 2': 1996-2010), with patients followed minimum 3 years. A total of 180 unselected records were analysed (powered for a relative hazard ratio of 0.5). Analyses defined patient selection trends, and for Era 2, the impact of age, comorbidities (Charlson score), and disease (T/N stage) on complications (Clavien-Dindo grade) and survival (Kaplan-Meier). A further sub-analysis was conducted with data divided into three 10-year periods. RESULTS: The age of operated patients increased from Era 1 to 2 (mean+5 years; P<0.001), but survival and complication rates were unchanged, including in patients≥75 years (P>0.5). In Era 2, reflecting recent practice, survival duration matched T/N stage (P<0.001) but was independent of age at surgery (P=0.56) and comorbidity score (P=0.78). However, grade of worst post-operative complication, including death (rate: 3.8%), was correlated with both age (P<0.01) and comorbidity score (P<0.01). DISCUSSION: Older patients are now undergoing oesophagectomy. However, if they are selected appropriately, then older patients and those with comorbidities can expect similar stage-matched survival outcomes to younger fitter patients, despite their higher operative risk. Poor outcomes persist in patients with locally advanced disease, and selection in this group should prioritise quality of life.

Perioperative mortality rate (POMR): a global indicator of access to safe surgery and anaesthesia.

INTRODUCTION: The unmet global burden of surgical disease is substantial. Currently, two billion people do not have access to emergency and essential surgical care. This results in unnecessary deaths from injury, infection, complications of pregnancy, and abdominal emergencies. Inadequately treated surgical disease results in disability, and many children suffer deformity without corrective surgery. METHODS: A consensus meeting was held between representatives of Surgical and Anaesthetic Colleges and Societies to obtain agreement about which indicators were the most appropriate and credible. The literature and state of national reporting of perioperative mortality rates was reviewed by the authors. RESULTS: There is a need for a credible national and/or regional indicator that is relevant to emergency and essential surgical care. We recommend introducing the perioperative mortality rate (POMR) as an indicator of access to and safety of surgery and anaesthesia. POMR should be measured at two time periods: death on the day of surgery and death before discharge from hospital or within 30 days of the procedure, whichever is sooner. The rate should be expressed as the number of deaths (numerator) over the number of procedures (denominator). The option of before-discharge or 30 days is practical for those low- to middle-income countries where postdischarge follow-up is likely to be incomplete, but it allows those that currently can report 30-day mortality rates to continue to do so. Clinical interpretation of POMR at a hospital or health service level will be facilitated by risk stratification using age, urgency (elective and emergency), procedure/procedure group, and the American Society of Anesthesiologists grade. CONCLUSIONS: POMR should be reported as a health indicator by all countries and regions of the world. POMR reporting is feasible, credible, achieves a consensus of acceptance for reporting at national level. Hospital and Service level POMR requires interpretation using simple measures of risk adjustment such as urgency, age, the condition being treated or the procedure being performed and ASA status.

A systematic review of a liver-first approach in patients with colorectal cancer and synchronous colorectal liver metastases.

BACKGROUND: Since the liver metastases rather than the colorectal cancer itself is the main determinant of patient's survival, the 'Liver-First Approach (LFA)' with upfront chemotherapy followed by a hepatic resection of colorectal liver metastases (CLM) and finally a colorectal cancer resection was proposed. The aim of this review was to analyse the evidence for LFA in patients with colorectal cancer and synchronous CLM. METHODS: A literature search of databases (MEDLINE and EMBASE) to identify published studies of LFA in patients with colorectal cancer and synchronous CLM was undertaken focussing on the peri-operative regimens of LFA and survival outcomes. RESULTS: Three observational studies and one retrospective cohort study were included for review. A total of 121 patients with colorectal cancer and synchronous CLM were selected for LFA. Pre-operative chemotherapy was used in 99% of patients. One hundred and twelve of the initial 121 patients (93%) underwent a hepatic resection of CLM. In total, 60% had a major liver resection and the R0 resection rate was 93%. Post-operative morbidity and mortality after the hepatic resection were 20% and 1%, respectively. Ultimately, 89 of the initial 121 (74%) patients underwent a colorectal cancer resection. Post-operative morbidity and mortality after a colorectal resection were 50% and 6%, respectively. The median overall survival was 40 months (range 19-50) with a recurrence rate of 52%. CONCLUSIONS: Current evidence suggests that LFA is safe and feasible in selected patients with colorectal cancer and synchronous CLM. Future studies are required to further define patient selection criteria for LFA and the exact role of LFA in the management of synchronous CLM.

A systematic review of two-stage hepatectomy in patients with initially unresectable colorectal liver metastases.

OBJECTIVES: Selected patients with unresectable colorectal liver metastases (CLM) may be rendered resectable using the two-stage hepatectomy (TSH) approach. This review was conducted with the aim of collating and evaluating published evidence for TSH in patients with initially unresectable CLM. METHODS: Searches of the MEDLINE and EMBASE databases were undertaken to identify studies of TSH in patients with initially unresectable CLM. Studies were required to focus on the perioperative treatment regimen, operative strategy, morbidity, technical success and survival outcomes. RESULTS: Ten observational studies were reviewed. A total of 459 patients with initially unresectable CLM were selected for the first stage of TSH. Preoperative chemotherapy was used in 88% of patients and achieved partial and stable response rates of 59% and 39%, respectively. Postoperative morbidity and mortality after the first stage of TSH were 17% and 0.5%, respectively. Portal vein embolization (PVE) was used in 76% of patients. Ultimately, 352 of the initial 459 (77%) patients underwent the second stage of TSH. Major liver resection was undertaken in 84% of patients; the negative margin (R0) resection rate was 75%. Postoperative morbidity and mortality after the second stage of TSH were 40% and 3%, respectively. Median overall survival was 37 months (range: 24-44 months) in patients who completed both stages of TSH. In patients who did not complete both stages of TSH, median survival was 16 months (range: 10-29 months). The 3-year disease-free survival rate was 20% (range: 6-27%). CONCLUSIONS: Two-stage hepatectomy is safe and effective in selected patients with initially unresectable CLM. Further studies are required to better define patient selection criteria for TSH and the exact roles of PVE and preoperative and interval chemotherapy.

A systematic review of clinical response and survival outcomes of downsizing systemic chemotherapy and rescue liver surgery in patients with initially unresectable colorectal liver metastases.

BACKGROUND: Selected patients with unresectable colorectal liver metastases (CLM) may be rendered resectable after systemic chemotherapy. We reviewed the evidence of downsizing systemic chemotherapy followed by rescue liver surgery in patients with initially unresectable CLM. METHODS: Literature search of databases (Medline and PubMed) to identify published studies of neoadjuvant chemotherapy followed by liver resection in patients with initially unresectable CLM was undertaken and focused on response rate of chemotherapy and survival outcomes. RESULTS: Ten observational studies were reviewed. A total of 1,886 patients with initially unresectable CLM underwent systemic chemotherapy. An objective response was observed in 64% (range, 43-79%) of patients after systemic chemotherapy. Of these, 22.5% underwent macroscopically curative liver resection. Median overall survival was 45 (range, 36-60) months with 19% of patients alive and recurrence-free. CONCLUSIONS: Current evidence suggests that downsizing systematic chemotherapy followed by rescue liver resection is safe and effective for selected patients with initially unresectable CLM. Further studies are required to examine response rates and secondary resectability using new targeted molecular therapy-based regimens.

Systematic review of actual 10-year survival following resection for hepatocellular carcinoma.

BACKGROUND: Hepatic resection is a potentially curative therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), but recurrence of disease is very common. Few studies have reported 10-year actual survival rates following hepatic resection; instead, most have used actuarial measures based on the Kaplan-Meier method. This systematic review aims to document 10-year actual survival rates and to identify factors significant in determining prognosis. METHODS: A comprehensive search was undertaken of MEDLINE and EMBASE. Only studies reporting the absolute number of patients alive at 10 years after first resection for HCC were included; these figures were used to calculate the actual 10-year survival rate. A qualitative review and analysis of the prognostic factors identified in the included studies were performed. RESULTS: Fourteen studies, all of which were retrospective case series, including data on 4197 patients with HCC were analysed. Ten years following resection, 303 of these patients were alive. The 10-year actual survival rate was 7.2%, whereas the actuarial survival quoted from the same studies was 26.8%. Positive prognostic factors included better hepatic function, a wider surgical margin and the absence of satellite lesions. CONCLUSIONS: The actual long-term survival rate after resection of HCC is significantly inferior to reported actuarial survival rates. The Kaplan-Meier method of actuarial survival analysis tends to overestimate survival outcomes as a result of censorship of data and subgroup analysis.

Endoscopic necrosectomy of pancreatic necrosis: a systematic review.

AIM: To review the current status of the novel technique of endoscopic necrosectomy in the management of pancreatic necrosis after acute pancreatitis. METHODS: Studies were identified by searching Medline, PubMed and Embase databases for articles from January 1990 to December 2009 using the keywords "acute pancreatitis", "pancreatic necrosis" and "endoscopy". Additional papers were identified by a manual search of the references from the key articles. Case series of fewer than five patients and case reports were excluded. RESULTS: Indications, techniques and outcomes of endoscopic necrosectomy were analysed. There were no randomised controlled trials identified. Ten case series were included in this analysis. There were a total of more than 1,100 endoscopic necrosectomy procedures in 260 patients with pancreatic necrosis. One hundred fifty-five were proven to be infected necrosis on culture. The overall mortality rate was 5%. The mean procedure-related morbidity rate was 27%. The rate of complete resolution of pancreatic necrosis with the endoscopic method alone was 76%. CONCLUSIONS: Endoscopic necrosectomy is a safe and effective treatment option in selected patients with pancreatic necrosis after acute pancreatitis. Future studies will be required to further define the selection criteria and the techniques for the endoscopic procedure.

Management of Boerhaave syndrome in Australasia: a retrospective case series and systematic review of the Australasian literature.

BACKGROUND: Boerhaave syndrome is a rare and life-threatening condition characterized by a spontaneous transmural tear of the oesophagus. There remains wide variation in the condition's management with non-operative management (NOM) and surgery being the two main treatment strategies. The aim was to review the presentation, management and outcomes for patients treated for Boerhaave syndrome at our institution and to compare these data with that previously reported within the Australasian literature. METHODS: A retrospective case series was performed for consecutive patients diagnosed with Boerhaave syndrome at our institution between January 2000 and January 2020. A systematic review of the Australasian literature was also performed. RESULTS: In case series, 15 patients were included (n = 2 NOM, n = 13 operative). The most common operative technique was primary repair with intercostal drainage via thoracotomy. Major complications occurred in 11 (73%) patients. Median Comprehensive Complication Index was 53.4 (interquartile range: 50). There was a significantly lower Comprehensive Complication Index associated with primary repair when compared to oesophageal resection (P = 0.01). There was one death, in the operative management group. Median length of hospital stay was 33 days (interquartile range: 58). In systematic review, 11 articles were included; four case series and seven case reports. From these, 23 patients met inclusion criteria. The majority of patients (83%) were managed operatively, with only four undergoing NOM. Seven patients died, representing an overall mortality rate of 30%. CONCLUSIONS: We provide an updated overview of the management of Boerhaave syndrome within Australasia. Aggressive operative management is associated with reasonable outcomes.

Day-only elective cholecystectomy: early experience and barriers to implementation in Australia.

BACKGROUND: Day-only laparoscopic cholecystectomy (DOLC) has been shown to be safe and feasible yet has not been widely implemented in Australia. This study explores the introduction of routine DOLC to Westmead Hospital, and highlights the barriers to its implementation. METHODS: Routine day-only cholecystectomy protocol was introduced at Westmead Hospital in 2014. A retrospective review of patients who underwent elective laparoscopic cholecystectomy during a 12-month period in 2014 was compared to a 12-month period in 2018, to examine the changes in practice after implementation of a unit protocol. Data were collected on patient demographics, admission category, outcomes and re-presentations. RESULTS: A total of 282 patients were included in the study, of these 169 were booked as day procedures, with 124 (73%) successfully discharged on the same day. There was a significant increase in the proportion of patients booked as day-only from 2014 to 2018 (48% versus 73%, P < 0.001). Day-only failure rates (unplanned overnight admissions), readmissions and complication rates were comparable between the two periods. The most common reason for unplanned overnight admissions were due to intraoperative findings (n = 28/45). CONCLUSION: Routine DOLC can be adopted in Australian hospitals without compromise to patient safety. Unplanned overnight admission is predominantly due to unexpected surgical pathology and can be reduced by protocols for the use of drains and planned outpatient endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography. Unplanned outpatient review can be minimized by optimizing both intra- and post-operative pain management. Individual surgeon and anaesthetist preferences remain an obstacle to a standardized protocol in the Australian setting.

Advanced trauma life support, 8th edition, the evidence for change.

The American College of Surgeons Committee on Trauma's Advanced Trauma Life Support Course is currently taught in 50 countries. The 8th edition has been revised following broad input by the International ATLS subcommittee. Graded levels of evidence were used to evaluate and approve changes to the course content. New materials related to principles of disaster management have been added. ATLS is a common language teaching one safe way of initial trauma assessment and management.

Laparoscopic hepatectomy, a systematic review.

This systematic review was undertaken to assess the published evidence for the safety, feasibility and reproducibility of laparoscopic liver resection. A computerized search of the Medline and Embase databases identified 28 non-duplicated studies including 703 patients in whom laparoscopic hepatectomy was attempted. Pooled data were examined for information on the patients, lesions, complications and outcome. The most common procedures were wedge resection (35.1%), segmentectomy (21.7%) and left lateral segmentectomy (20.9%). Formal right hepatectomy constituted less than 4% of the reported resections. The conversion and complication rates were 8.1% and 17.6%, respectively. The mortality rate over all these studies was 0.8% and the median (range) hospital stay 7.8 days (2-15.3 days). Eight case-control studies were analysed and although some identified significant reductions in-hospital stay, time to first ambulation after surgery and blood loss, none showed a reduction in complication or mortality rate for laparoscopically carried out resections. It is clear that certain types of laparoscopic resection are feasible and safe when carried out by appropriately skilled surgeons. Further work is needed to determine whether these conclusions can be generalized to include formal right hepatectomy.

Role for opinion leaders in promoting evidence-based surgery.

HYPOTHESIS: "Opinion leaders" can be identified by surgeons from among their peers, and opinion leaders have a role in promoting best surgical practice. DESIGN: Postal survey. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Four hundred eighteen (77% response fraction) randomly selected fellows of the Royal Australasian College of Surgeons. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Number of opinion leaders identified locally, statewide, and nationally; ratings of 22 possible attributes in conferring status as an opinion leader; and views about and ratings of the role of opinion leaders. RESULTS: Most respondents were unable to identify a local colleague whom they considered to be an opinion leader in their own specialty (mode, 0; and median, 1) or in surgery in general (mode, 0; and median, 0). Estimated numbers of opinion leaders were significantly higher at the state and national levels for the respondents' own specialty and for surgery in general (P<.001 for all). Surgical expertise and teaching skills were rated most highly as conferring status as an opinion leader. Academic and professional contributions received the lowest ratings. Most surgeons (88%; 95% confidence interval, 84%-91%) agreed that opinion leaders could influence them to change their practice. Opinion leaders were rated as "very influential" by significantly more surgeons than clinical audit (38% vs 27%, chi21 = 13.6, P<.001) and clinical practice guidelines (38% vs 24%, chi21 = 21.4, P<.001) (McNemar test for both). CONCLUSIONS: Australian surgeons support the concept of opinion leaders. Although few local colleagues whom they consider as fulfilling such a role can be identified, opinion leaders are evident at a national level. Once opinion leaders are identified using attributes ranked in our survey, interventional studies will further delineate their influence in improving evidence-based surgical practice.

Systematic review and meta-analysis of laparoscopic versus open distal gastrectomy.

BACKGROUND: Laparoscopic distal gastrectomy has been increasingly utilized in the treatment of gastric adenocarcinoma. This study aims to compare the morbidity/mortality and postoperative outcomes of laparoscopic-assisted versus open distal gastrectomy since 2000. METHODS: A comprehensive search of MEDLINE and EMBASE was conducted including studies published between 2000 and present. RESULTS: Seventeen studies with a total of 7,109 distal gastrectomies (3,496 lap vs 3,613 open) were included. Across all studies, postoperative morbidity rates for laparoscopic gastrectomy were lower than that of open [median (range) 10 (0-36) % vs 17 (0-43) %]. Meta-analysis of postoperative morbidity rates in prospective studies only yielded pooled odds ratio of 0.52 (95 % CI 0.33-0.81) (P = 0.004). In-hospital mortality rates were comparable between the two (range: laparoscopic 0-3.3 vs open 0-6.7 %). The long-term oncological outcomes of resection were difficult to analyze given variable reporting but appeared similar between the two. Meta-analysis of prospective studies showed that laparoscopic-assisted distal gastrectomy was associated with significantly shorter hospital length of stay [standard mean difference (SMD) = -0.78 (95 % CI = -1.0 to -0.56)], comparable intraoperative bleeding [SMD = 0.64 (95 % CI = -1.3-0.0430) P = 0.066] and longer operative time compared to open gastrectomy [1.9 (95 % CI 0.05-3.8) P = 0.045, with P < 0.001]. CONCLUSION: This study supports the use of laparoscopic-assisted distal gastrectomy for treatment of gastric adenocarcinoma with evidence of comparable, if not better, short-term postoperative parameters when compared to open distal gastrectomy. The long-term oncological outcomes appear similar but may require more evaluation.

Hepatic resection for metastatic melanoma: a systematic review.

Melanoma metastatic to the liver has a very poor prognosis, and has traditionally been treated using systemic chemotherapy with limited efficacy. Surgery is increasingly being explored as a therapeutic option for melanoma liver metastases, with varying levels of success. A systematic review was undertaken to explore the short-term and long-term outcomes associated with hepatectomy for melanoma metastases, in addition to identifying prognostic factors favouring increased survival. All eligible studies were identified through an electronic search of Medline and Embase (January 1990-March 2013). Each study was independently analysed by two reviewers, with relevant data extracted and tabulated according to predetermined criteria. Thirteen studies were selected that fulfilled the selection criteria, with a total of 551 patients undergoing hepatic resection for melanoma metastases. Metastases to the liver occurred at a median interval of 54 months. The median perioperative morbidity and mortality were 10% (range 0-28.6%) and 0% (range 0-7.1%), respectively. The median overall survival for operative patients was 24 months, with median survival being greater in the R0 resection group (25 months; range 9.5-65.6 months) compared with the R1/2 resection group (16 months; range 11.7-29 months). Overall median 1-, 3- and 5-year survival rates were 70% (range 39-100%), 36% (range 10.2-53%) and 24% (range 3-53%), respectively. Positive prognostic factors may include single hepatic metastases, a longer time to development of hepatic metastases and R0 resection. Hepatic resection for metastatic melanoma might confer a distinct survival benefit in a select group of patients, although disease recurrence is the norm.

A systematic review of repeat hepatectomy for recurrent colorectal liver metastases.

BACKGROUND: Selected patients with recurrent colorectal liver metastases (CLM) may be resectable by repeat hepatectomy approach. In this review, we aim to collate and evaluate the published evidence for repeat hepatectomy in patients with recurrent CLM. METHODS: Searches of the Medline and Embase databases were undertaken to identify studies of repeat hepatectomy in patients with recurrent CLM focusing on the perioperative treatment regimen, operative strategy, morbidity, technical success and survival outcomes. RESULTS: Twenty-two observational studies were reviewed. A total of 1,610 patients underwent second hepatectomy for recurrent CLM. The median percentage of extra-hepatic disease was 15 % (range, 0-39 %). Preoperative chemotherapy was reported in 5/22 studies. Major liver resection was undertaken in 25 % (range, 9-59 %) of patients and the R0 resection rate was 90 % (range, 77-96 %). Postoperative morbidity and mortality after the second hepatectomy were 23 % and 1.2 %, respectively. Recurrence rate after second hepatectomy was 63.9 % (range, 42-91 %) with a median follow-up period of 32 months (range, 19-59 months). Median overall survival was 35 months (range, 19-56 months). The 3-year and 5-year overall survival rates were 55 % (range, 11-82 %) and 42 % (range, 31-73 %), respectively. CONCLUSION: Second hepatectomy is safe and feasible in selected patients with recurrent CLM and is associated with acceptable perioperative and survival outcomes. Future prospective studies are required to further define the patient selection criteria for repeat hepatectomy and the exact role of perioperative chemotherapy.

The volume effect in liver surgery--a systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: There is an inverse relationship between hospital and surgeon volume and mortality in many types of complex surgery. The aim of this paper is to investigate the volume effect on outcomes of liver surgery. METHODS: A systematic review and meta-analysis was performed. A literature search was conducted using Medline and EMBASE from 1995 to 2012. A random effects model was used. RESULTS: Seventeen studies were selected for detailed analysis. Definition of a high-volume institution varied from 2 to more than 33 procedures per year. The pooled odds ratio of mortality rate in low- vs high-volume centres was 2.0 [95 % confidence interval (CI), 1.6-2.4; P < 0.001]. Some studies divided centres into more than two groups and compared the highest and lowest volume groups. The pooled odds ratio of mortality rate for this comparison type was 3.2 (95 % CI, 1.7-5.8; P < 0.001). Funnel plots suggest possible publication bias. There was inadequate data to compare morbidity. Only two of seven studies demonstrated a shorter length of stay in the high-volume centres. There was no convincing volume effect on long-term survival. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests a strong relationship between volume and perioperative mortality. No difference in morbidity, length of stay or survival was demonstrated.