Nontarget and Comprehensive Analyses of Halogenated Organic Additives in Electrical Product Plastics by GC-NCI-Q-Orbitrap-HRMS and Cl/Br-Screening Algorithms.

Halogenated organic additives (HOAs) are used in plastic components of various electrical products, potentially causing detrimental effects on the eco-environment and humans. Besides reported HOAs, many unknown HOAs may be present in electrical product plastics and urgently require identification and characterization. This study performed nontarget analysis and comprehensive characterization of HOAs in three typical electrical product plastics by nontarget analysis using gas chromatography-negative chemical ionization-high-resolution mass spectrometry in association with in-house-developed chlorine/bromine-specific data-processing algorithms. A total of 674 formulas of HOAs were identified in the plastics dismantled from three electrical products, among which 166, 362, and 146 were organochlorines, organobromines, and mix-chlorinated/brominated organic compounds, respectively. The identified HOAs were semiquantified, and the total concentrations of HOAs in individual plastics were 445-1549 ng/g. Organobromines showed the most species and the highest abundances in all of the plastics, of which the abundances accounted for 86.6-98.0% of the total HOAs. Partial HOAs (209 formulas) were tentatively structurally elucidated, which were classified into 13 groups, i.e., halogenated alkyl phenoxyethyls (H-alkyl phenoxyethyls), H-alkylbenzenes, H-benzenes, H-bisphenol A (H-BPAs), H-dioxins, H-diphenyl ethers, H-biphenyls/terphenyls, H-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, H-phenols, H-phenyl esters, H-phenyl-aldehydes/ketones, H-quinones, and an undefined group containing the HOAs such as dechlorane plus and chlordane. H-BPAs were the predominant HOAs in the plastics, showing relatively high concentrations (13-281 ng/g), and tetrabromobisphenol A was the most abundant H-BPA, with the concentrations of 9-196 ng/g. The comprehensive characterization results represent a holistic picture on the species features and abundance distributions of HOAs in electrical product plastics and provide an inventory of crucial HOAs worthy of concern. HOAs may migrate from plastics and release into the environment and are possibly an important source of halogenated organic pollutants in the environment, thus calling for further investigation and proper regulation.

Stereoisomeric profiling of pharmaceuticals ibuprofen and iopromide in wastewater and river water, China.

Stereoisomeric compositions can provide insights into sources, fate, and ecological risks of contaminants in the environment. In this study, stereoisomeric profiles of ibuprofen and iopromide were investigated in wastewater and receiving surface water of the Pearl River Delta, south China. The enantiomeric fraction (EF) of ibuprofen was 0.108-0.188 and 0.480, whereas the isomer ratio (IR) of iopromide was 1.426-1.673 and 1.737-1.898 in the influent and final effluent, respectively, suggesting stereoselective degradation occurred for both pharmaceuticals during wastewater treatment. Ibuprofen showed enantioselective degradation in the anaerobic, anoxic, and aerobic conditions, whereas iopromide displayed isomer-selective degradation only under the aerobic condition. In the river waters, the EF of ibuprofen was 0.130-0.327 and the IR of iopromide was 1.500-2.531. The results suggested that pharmaceuticals in the mainstream Pearl River were mainly from discharge of treated wastewater, whereas in the tributary rivers and urban canals, direct discharge of untreated wastewater represented a significant contribution. The IR of iopromide can be an applicable and efficient tracer for wastewater discharge in the environment.

Enantiomeric determination of azole antifungals in wastewater and sludge by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.

A sensitive and reliable liquid chromatographic-tandem mass spectrometric method for enantiomeric determination of five chiral azole antifungals (econazole, ketoconazole, miconazole, tebuconazole, and propiconazole) in wastewater and sludge has been established and validated. An isotope-labeled internal standard was used for quantification. Recovery of the individual enantiomers was usually in the range of 77-102 % for wastewater and 71-95 % for sludge, with relative standard deviations within 20 %. No significant difference (p>0.05) was observed between recovery of pairs of enantiomers of the chiral azole antifungals except for those of tebuconazole. Method quantification limits for individual enantiomers were 0.3-10 ng L(-1) and 3-29 ng g(-1) dry weight for wastewater and sludge, respectively. The method was used to investigate the enantiomeric composition of the azole pharmaceuticals in wastewater and sludge samples from a sewage treatment plant in China. Enantiomers of miconazole, ketoconazole, and econazole were widely detected. The results showed that the azole antifungals in wastewater and sludge were generally racemic or marginally non-racemic. The method is a useful tool for investigation of the enantiomeric occurrence, behavior, and fate of the chiral azole antifungals in the environment.

Nontarget analysis and characterization of alkylamides in electrical product plastics by gas chromatography-positive chemical ionization quadrupole-orbitrap high-resolution mass spectrometry and quasi-molecular ion screening and anchoring algorithm.

Alkylamides are used as plastic additives in various materials and products, potentially posing risks to human health and the environment. Besides reported alkylamides in plastics, many unknown alkylamides may exist in various plastics, which are needing identification and characterization. This study performed nontarget analysis of alkylamides in electrical product plastics by gas chromatography-positive chemical ionization high-resolution mass spectrometry in full scan mode and an in-house developed data-processing algorithm. The algorithm was based on exact mass discrepancies and signal intensities of specific fragment and adduct ions of alkylamides, and was able to efficiently screen and anchor quasi-molecular ions. As a whole, 36 alkylamides were identified, of which 7 were found in all the plastics and 14 were observed in ≥ 2 plastics. The content distributions were elucidated with normalized abundances of quasi-molecular ions of alkylamides. Oleamide showed chromatographic peaks with the highest abundances in individual samples and was the most abundant alkylamide in all the plastics, of which the normalized abundances accounted for 57.42-70.06% of the total abundances of all alkylamides. Besides, (2E)-2-hexenamide, palmitamide and stearamide showed relatively high abundances, of which the relative abundances were 6.99-25.79%. The high abundances together with predicted environmental behaviors and toxicities indicate that alkylamides in plastics are worthy of further in-depth research. The nontarget analysis method including the instrumental analysis and data-processing algorithm can be applied to identification and characterization of alkylamides in more diverse matrices. In addition, the analysis results for the first time provide knowledge about the specific characteristics and relative content distributions of alkylamides in electrical product plastics from a comprehensive perspective.

Determination of pharmaceuticals, steroid hormones, and endocrine-disrupting personal care products in sewage sludge by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.

A sensitive method has been developed and validated for the determination of diverse groups of pharmaceuticals, steroid hormones, and hormone-like personal care products in sewage sludge. Samples were extracted by ultrasonic-assisted extraction followed by solid-phase extraction cleanup. For determination of estrogens and hormone-like phenolic compounds, sample extracts were further derivatized with dansyl chloride and purified with silica gel column chromatography to improve the analytical sensitivity. The chemicals were determined by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) in multiple-reaction monitoring mode. Recoveries ranged mostly from 63% to 119% with relative standard deviations within 15%. Method quantification limits were 0.1-3 ng g(-1) dry weight (dw) for sewage sludge. The method was applied to a preliminary investigation of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in sewage sludge and sediment in the Pearl River Delta, South China. Triclosan, triclocarban, 2-phenylphenol, bisphenol A, and parabens were ubiquitously detected at 3.6-5088.2 ng g(-1) dw in sludge and 0.29-113.1 ng g(-1) dw in sediment samples, respectively. Estrone, carbamazepine, metoprolol, and propranolol were also frequently quantified in the sludge and sediment samples. The dewatering process caused no significant losses of these PPCPs in sewage sludge.

Occurrence and behavior of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and lipid regulators in wastewater and urban river water of the Pearl River Delta, South China.

Occurrence of five non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (salicylic acid, ibuprofen, naproxen, indomethacin and diclofenac) and three lipid regulators (bezafibrate, clofibric acid and gemfibrozil) was investigated in wastewater, sewage sludge, and river water of the urban section of the Pearl River at Guangzhou in South China. Behavior and fate of the pharmaceuticals during treatment in two sewage treatment plants (STPs) were also studied in depth by determining concentrations in the influents and effluents at major treatment units and the sewage sludge. Concentrations of the pharmaceuticals in the raw wastewater were mostly at ng L(-1) levels except salicylic acid whose concentrations ranged from 9.6 to 23.3 µg L(-1). No significant amount of the pharmaceuticals was detected in the suspended particulate matter of wastewater and sewage sludge. Salicylic acid, indomethacin, and naproxen were almost completely removed (≥ 99%); gemfibrozil, ibuprofen and bezafibrate were significantly removed (>75%), whereas diclofenac and clofibric acid were removed by 60-70% during treatment in the STPs. Generally, biodegradation was the governing process for elimination of the investigated pharmaceuticals. Anaerobic biodegradation was responsible for most of the removal of diclofenac whereas aerobic biodegradation also played an important role in elimination of the other pharmaceuticals except SA, which was nearly completely removed after the anoxic process. In the Pearl River, the pharmaceuticals were widely detected. Both the concentrations and detection frequency were higher in March 2008 than those in the other seasons, which may be ascribed mainly to less dilution caused by lower precipitation. Besides the STPs, urban canals directly connected with the Pearl River may also be important contributors to the pharmaceutical contamination in the river.

Distribution pattern, behavior, and fate of antibacterials in urban aquatic environments in South China.

Occurrence, behavior and fate of several groups of antibacterials were investigated in municipal wastewater, sewage sludge, and urban river water in China. Fluoroquinolones (e.g., ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin, and ofloxacin), macrolides (dehydroerythromycin, roxithromycin, and clarithromycin), sulfonamides (sulfamethoxazole and sulfamethazine) and trimethoprim were ubiquitously detected in the wastewater in China. Fluoroquinolones were generally the most abundant in the raw sewage, with a maximum concentration of up to 6415 ng L(-1) observed for norfloxacin. Sulfonamides and macrolides transported predominantly in the aqueous phase. A median percentage of 67% of sulfonamides and 86% of macrolides remained in the final effluent after treatment in sewage treatment plants. On the contrary, sorption played a significant role in transport of fluoroquinolones and approximately half of the fluoroquinolones finally ended up and persisted in the dewatered sludge. In the urban section of the Pearl River at Guangzhou, sulfonamides, trimethoprim, and macrolides were widely present at median concentrations of 22-735 ng L(-1), whereas fluoroquinolones were only occasionally detected at 2-152 ng L(-1), probably due to their strong tendency of partition to sediment and/or photodegradability. The result of principal components analysis suggests input of non-sewage derived sulfamethazine in the Pearl River. Seasonal variations of the antibacterials distribution in the wastewater are mainly ascribed to different consumption. Dilution effect by precipitation, however, also plays an important role in seasonal distribution of the antibacterials in the Pearl River.

Occurrence and behavior of pharmaceuticals, steroid hormones, and endocrine-disrupting personal care products in wastewater and the recipient river water of the Pearl River Delta, South China.

The occurrence and behavior of ß-blockers, antiepileptic drug carbamazepine and its metabolites, X-ray contrast agent iopromide, natural and synthetic hormones, and several groups of hormone-like personal care products (PCPs), including antiseptics (triclocarban, triclosan, and 2-phenylphenol), parabens and bisphenol A, were investigated in municipal wastewater, sewage sludge, and urban river water of the Pearl River Delta, South China. The pharmaceuticals, natural hormones and PCPs were ubiquitously detected in the raw wastewater from a sewage treatment plant (STP). Only triclocarban and triclosan were detected at significant amounts in the dewatered sludge. Iopromide and the PCPs were greatly removed/transformed from the aqueous phase of the wastewater. The ß-blockers were only moderately removed/transformed. Carbamazepine passed through the STP almost unchanged. Biodegradation was the dominant process for elimination/transformation of the pharmaceuticals, hormones, and most PCPs in the STP. However, sorption also played an important role in the fate of triclocarban with nearly 50% of the mass load entering the STP ended up and persisted in the dewatered sludge. The pharmaceuticals, estrone, and PCPs were also widely detected in the Pearl River at Guangzhou. Bisphenol A had the highest concentration. The pharmaceutical concentrations in the Pearl River were higher in March than in May, most likely due to less dilution by lower precipitation. The omnipresence and high levels of the pharmaceuticals and PCPs in the Pearl River may be associated with direct discharge of untreated wastewater and pose potential risks to the ecological system.

Occurrence and removal of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their derivatives in an ecological wastewater treatment plant in South China and effluent impact to the receiving river.

Ecological wastewater treatment plant (EWWTP), a kind of emerging wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in recent years, combined microbiology with botany which is efficient for the removal of nitrogen and organic matter, as well as deodorization. The occurrence and removal of micro-organic pollutants in EWWTPs were still not well known. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their typical derivatives (SPAHs) including the oxygenated PAHs (OPAHs), chlorinated PAHs (ClPAHs), and methyl PAHs (MPAHs) were investigated in an EWWTP in Guangdong Province, China. The concentrations of the Σ6 OPAHs (114-384 ng/L) were higher than the Σ16 PAHs (92-250 ng/L), and much higher than the Σ4 MPAHs (13-64 ng/L) and Σ9 ClPAHs (2-3 ng/L) in the EWWTP and the effluent receiving river. The total removal efficiencies of the PAHs, OPAHs, MPAHs, and ClPAHs in the EWWTP (43 ± 14%, 41 ± 7%, 55 ± 16%, and 18 ± 4%) were lower than the traditional WWTPs, probably due to the lower concentration of the sludge in the ecological treatment. The advanced treatment process (microfiltration and UV disinfection treatment) contributed much less (0-20%) to the whole removal efficiency than the ecological treatment (80-100%). The effluent from the EWWTP slightly reduced the PAHs and SPAHs concentrations in the receiving river. The high concentrations of the PAHs and SPAHs in the receiving river were similar to the influent of the EWWTP, indicating that some untreated wastewater was directly discharged to the river, especially in the upstream.

Occurrence of steroid estrogens, endocrine-disrupting phenols, and acid pharmaceutical residues in urban riverine water of the Pearl River Delta, South China.

A scoping study was conducted to investigate the residues of nineteen pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), including 4 natural and 3 synthetic steroid estrogens, 7 endocrine-disrupting phenols, and 5 acid pharmaceuticals in three urban streams and the Major Pearl River at Guangzhou, a megapolis in the Pearl River Delta, South China. Estrone was detected in >60% water samples with a maximum concentration of 65 ng L(-1). Endocrine-disrupting phenols (nonylphenol, bisphenol A, triclosan, 2-phenylphenol, methyparaben, and propylparaben) were found to be widely present at rather high concentrations in the urban riverine water of Guangzhou. Salicylic acid, clofibric acid and ibuprofen were detected in most water samples with maximum concentrations of 2098, 248 and 1417 ng L(-1) respectively, whereas naproxen was less frequently detected and also at lower concentration. Both the detection frequencies and median concentrations of the PPCPs appeared higher during the low-flow season than during the high-flow season. The seasonal difference in PPCPs occurrence was probably attributed to the dilution effect caused by the rainfall. PPCPs in the urban riverine water of Guangzhou originated mainly from random discharge and/or leakage of municipal wastewater. PPCPs contamination in the Major Pearl River may be of a potential environmental issue, especially during the low-flow season.

Improvement of zinc substitution in the reactivity of magnetite coupled with aqueous Fe(II) towards nitrobenzene reduction.

The reduction of nitrobenzene (NB) by Zn-substituted magnetite coupled with aqueous Fe(II) was studied. A series of Zn-substituted magnetites (Fe3-xZnxO4, x = 0, 0.25, 0.49, 0.74, and 0.99) were synthesized by a coprecipitation method followed by systematic analysis of the variation in structure and physicochemical properties of magnetite using XRD, TEM, TG, BET and XAFS. All of the samples had a spinel structure by Zn substitution. Zn2+ primarily occupied the tetrahedral sites, but a portion of them moved to the octahedral sites at higher Zn level. Zn substitution increased the BET specific surface area and surface hydroxyl amount. The electron balance indicated that the NB reduction was primarily through the heterogeneous reaction by Fe3-xZnxO4 and adsorbed Fe(II), where NB in aqueous solution was reduced by structural Fe2+ in magnetite recharged by adsorbed Fe(II). Various factors, such as aqueous Fe(II) concentration, magnetite stoichiometry and Zn level, were investigated to illustrate their effects on the reduction processes. Both the rate constant kobs and electron transfer amount illustrated that Zn substitution generally improved the reduction activity of the Fe3-xZnxO4/Fe(II) system, while overdose of Zn retarded the process. This issue was attributed to the variation in electron conductivity of Fe3-xZnxO4 and Zn2+ occupancy.

Occurrence, fate and ecological risk of chlorinated paraffins in Asia: A review.

Chlorinated paraffins (CPs), complex mixtures of polychlorinated alkanes, are widely used in various industries and are thus ubiquitous in the receiving environment. The present study comprehensively reviewed the occurrence, fate and ecological risk of CPs in various environmental matrices in Asia. Releases from the production and consumption of CPs or CP-containing materials, wastewater discharge and irrigation, sewage sludge application, long-range atmospheric transport and aerial deposition have been found to be most likely sources and transport mechanisms for the dispersion of CPs in various environmental matrices, such as air, water, sediment, soil and biota. CPs can be bioaccumulated in biota and biomagnified through food webs, likely causing toxic ecological effects in organisms and posing health risks to humans. Inhalation, dust ingestion and dietary intake are strongly suggested as the major routes of human exposure. Research gaps are discussed to highlight the perspectives of future research to improve future efforts regarding the analysis of CPs, the environmental occurrence and elimination of CPs, the total environmental pressure, and the risks to organisms and populations.

Profile and behavior of antiviral drugs in aquatic environments of the Pearl River Delta, China.

Occurrence and behavior of six antiviral pharmaceuticals (acyclovir, ganciclovir, oseltamivir, ribavirin, stavudine and zidovudine) and one active metabolite oseltamivir carboxylate were investigated in wastewater, landfill leachate, river water, reservoir and well water in the vicinity of municipal landfills in the Pearl River Delta, China. Acyclovir was the only antiviral detected in the wastewater at 177-406 (mean=238) and 114-205 (mean=154) ng L(-1) in the influent and final effluent, respectively. Aerobic biodegradation appeared to be the main process for the elimination of acyclovir in the wastewater. Acyclovir was also the only antiviral quantitatively detected in the Pearl River and its tributaries, with a maximum concentration up to 113 ng L(-1). Treated wastewater was a major source of acyclovir in the rivers. The highest concentration of acyclovir was observed in winter in the river water and the dilution effect by precipitation was suggested to be the dominant factor impacting the seasonal pattern of acyclovir in the rivers. No antivirals were quantitatively detected in the well water whereas acyclovir was frequently detected in the reservoirs at a maximal concentration of 33.6 ng L(-1) in the vicinity of the municipal landfills. However, source identification and fate of acyclovir in the reservoirs pend on further research.

Occurrence and ecological potential of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in groundwater and reservoirs in the vicinity of municipal landfills in China.

Pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs), including antibiotics, azole anti-fungals, non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs, lipid regulators, parabens, antiseptics, and bisphenol A, were investigated in groundwater and reservoirs in the vicinity of two municipal landfills in the metropolis of Guangzhou, South China. Dehydroerythromycin, sulfamethoxazole, fluconazole, salicylic acid, methylparaben, triclosan, and bisphenol A were the mostly frequently detected PPCPs in the groundwater at low ng L(-1) levels. In the reservoirs, the PPCPs were widely detected at higher frequencies and concentrations, especially sulfamethoxazole, propiconazole, and ibuprofen, with maximal concentrations above 1 µg L(-1). The PPCPs in the groundwater did not show significant seasonal differences or spatial trends. However, in the reservoirs, higher PPCP concentrations were observed in spring than in other seasons. The anti-bacterials in the groundwater posed medium risks to algae. In the reservoirs, the sulfonamides and macrolides posed low to high risks, while ibuprofen, salicylic acid, and clofibric acid presented low to medium risks to aquatic organisms. Overall, the results showed that the PPCP contaminants and subsequent ecological risks in the groundwater and surface water in the vicinity of the landfills may be of serious concern. More research is needed to better correlate the landfill leachates and PPCP contamination in the nearby aquatic environments.

Chiral profiling of azole antifungals in municipal wastewater and recipient rivers of the Pearl River Delta, China.

Enantiomeric compositions and fractions (EFs) of three chiral imidazole (econazole, ketoconazole, and miconazole) and one chiral triazole (tebuconazole) antifungals were investigated in wastewater, river water, and bed sediment of the Pearl River Delta, South China. The imidazole pharmaceuticals in the untreated wastewater were racemic to weakly nonracemic (EFs of 0.450-0.530) and showed weak enantioselectivity during treatment in the sewage treatment plant. The EFs of the dissolved azole antifungals were usually different from those of the sorbed azoles in the suspended particulate matter, suggesting different behaviors for the enantiomers of the chiral azole antifungals in the dissolved and particulate phases of the wastewater. The azole antifungals were widely present in the rivers. The bed sediment was a sink for the imidazole antifungals. The imidazoles were prevalently racemic, whereas tebuconazole was widely nonracemic in the rivers. Seasonal effects were observed on distribution and chirality of the azole antifungals. Concentrations of the azole antifungals in the river water were relatively higher in winter than in spring and summer while the EF of miconazole in the river water was higher in summer. The mechanism of enantiomeric behavior of the chiral azole antifungals in the environment warrants further research.

Distribution, behavior and fate of azole antifungals during mechanical, biological, and chemical treatments in sewage treatment plants in China.

Residue of azole antifungals in the environment is of concern due to the environmental risks and persistence. Distribution, behavior, and fate of frequently used azole antifungal pharmaceuticals were investigated in wastewater at two sewage treatment plants (STPs) in China. Fluconazole, clotrimazole, econazole, ketoconazole, and miconazole were constantly detected at 1-1834 ng L(-1) in the wastewater. The latter four were also ubiquitously detected in sewage sludge. Fluconazole passed through treatment in the STPs and largely remained in the final effluent. On the contrary, biotransformation and sorption to sludge occurred to the other azoles. Ketoconazole was more readily bio-transformed, whereas clotrimazole, econazole, and miconazole were more likely to be adsorbed onto and persisted in sewage sludge. Lipophilicity plays the governing role on adsorption. The highest concentrations in the raw wastewater were observed in winter for the azole pharmaceuticals except for fluconazole. The seasonal difference was smoothed out after treatment in the STPs.

An indirect competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for determination of norfloxacin in waters using a specific polyclonal antibody.

A specific polyclonal anti-norfloxacin antibody was obtained, and a sensitive indirect competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (icELISA) was developed for determining trace amounts of norfloxacin in various waters. Good linearity was achieved in the range from 0.1 to 10 µg L(-1). The average IC(50) value was determined to be 2.2 µg L(-1) and the limit of detection was 0.016 µg L(-1) at a signal-to-noise ratio of 3 in phosphate-buffered saline buffer. Recoveries of norfloxacin at various spiking levels ranged from 74 to 105% in groundwater, surface water, treated and untreated wastewater samples, with relative standard deviations of 3-5%. The assay was applied for determining norfloxacin in municipal wastewater, surface water, and groundwater collected in a metropolis of China. Raw wastewater samples were only submitted to filtration and pH adjustment while the other water samples were pre-concentrated by solid phase extraction prior to the icELISA assay. Good agreement of the results obtained by the icELISA and liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry further confirmed the reliability and accuracy of the icELISA for rapid detection of norfloxacin in waters.

Determination of commonly used azole antifungals in various waters and sewage sludge using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.

Sensitive and reliable methods have been developed and validated for determination of commonly consumed azole antifungal pharmaceuticals (clotrimazole, econazole, ketoconazole, and miconazole) and biocides (propiconazole and tebuconazole) in various waters and sewage sludge. Solid phase extraction (SPE) combined with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) was used to determine the azole antifungals in waters. Azole antifungals in sewage sludge were extracted with ultrasonic-assisted extraction, followed by SPE cleanup and UHPLC-MS/MS detection. Quantification was performed by internal standard calibration in multiple reaction monitoring mode. Recoveries were mostly in the range of 52-110% with relative standard deviations generally within 20%. Method quantification limits were 0.5-6 ng L(-1) in waters and 3-9 ng g(-1) dry weight (dw) in sewage sludge, respectively. The methods were applied to determine the azole antifungals in wastewater, river water, sediment, and sewage sludge sampled from the Pearl River Delta, China. Clotrimazole, ketoconazole, and miconazole were widely detected at low ng L(-1) in waters, low ng g(-1) dw in river sediment, and low microg g(-1) dw in sewage sludge. The methods can provide valuable tools for investigating occurrence and fate of the azole antifungals in the environment.

Concentrations, transport, fate, and releases of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in sewage treatment plants in the Pearl River Delta, South China.

Wastewater has proved to be a significant source of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in the environment. Seventeen congeners from tri- to deca-BDEs were determined to characterize the occurrence, fate, and transport of PBDEs in two sewage treatment plants in the Pearl River Delta, South China. The PBDE concentrations varied substantially from 13.3 to 2496.4 ng L(-1) in the raw wastewater, depending on the wastewater types and contents of the suspended particulate matter (SPM). The concentrations declined to 0.9 to 4.4 ng L(-1) in the treated effluent and were closely associated with SPM contents. BDE-209 was the predominant congener in the wastewater and sewage sludge. Most of PBDEs might have ended up in the sewage sludge, with <4.7% being discharged with the treated effluent. The results revealed that PBDEs were not significantly degraded by biological treatment and chlorination in the STPs. An annual release of PBDEs was estimated at 2280 kg/year through wastewater from the Pearl River Delta.