High sugar content of European commercial baby foods and proposed updates to existing recommendations.

The aim was to determine whether commercial baby foods marketed within Europe (up to 36 months of age) have inappropriate formulation and high sugar content and to provide suggestions to update European regulations and recommendations as part of a nutrient profile model developed for this age group. The latter was produced following recommended World Health Organization (WHO) steps, including undertaking a rapid literature review. Packaging information from countries across the WHO European region was used to determine mean energy from total sugar by food category. The percentage of products containing added sugar and the percentage of savoury meal-type products containing pureed fruit were also calculated. A total of 2,634 baby foods from 10 countries were summarised: 768 sold in the United Kingdom, over 200 each from Denmark (319), Spain (241), Italy (430) and Malta (243) and between 99-200 from Hungary, Norway, Portugal, Estonia and Slovenia. On average, approximately a third of energy in baby foods in these European countries came from total sugar, and for most food categories, energy from sugar was higher than 10%. Use of added sugars was widespread across product categories, with concentrated fruit juice most commonly used. Savoury meal-type purees did not contain added sugars except in United Kingdom and Malta; however, fruit as an ingredient was found in 7% of savoury meals, most frequently seen in UK products. Clear proposals for reducing the high sugar content seen in commercial baby foods were produced. These suggestions, relating to both content and labelling, should be used to update regulations and promote product reformulation.

Preconception health in England: a proposal for annual reporting with core metrics.

There is growing interest in preconception health as a crucial period for influencing not only pregnancy outcomes, but also future maternal and child health, and prevention of long-term medical conditions. Successive national and international policy documents emphasise the need to improve preconception health, but resources and action have not followed through with these goals. We argue for a dual intervention strategy at both the public health level (eg, by improving the food environment) and at the individual level (eg, by better identification of those planning a pregnancy who would benefit from support to optimise health before conception) in order to raise awareness of preconception health and to normalise the notion of planning and preparing for pregnancy. Existing strategies that target common risks factors, such as obesity and smoking, should recognise the preconception period as one that offers special opportunity for intervention, based on evidence from life-course epidemiology, developmental (embryo) programming around the time of conception, and maternal motivation. To describe and monitor preconception health in England, we propose an annual report card using metrics from multiple routine data sources. Such a report card should serve to hold governments and other relevant agencies to account for delivering interventions to improve preconception health.

Before the beginning: nutrition and lifestyle in the preconception period and its importance for future health.

A woman who is healthy at the time of conception is more likely to have a successful pregnancy and a healthy child. We reviewed published evidence and present new data from low-income, middle-income, and high-income countries on the timing and importance of preconception health for subsequent maternal and child health. We describe the extent to which pregnancy is planned, and whether planning is linked to preconception health behaviours. Observational studies show strong links between health before pregnancy and maternal and child health outcomes, with consequences that can extend across generations, but awareness of these links is not widespread. Poor nutrition and obesity are rife among women of reproductive age, and differences between high-income and low-income countries have become less distinct, with typical diets falling far short of nutritional recommendations in both settings and especially among adolescents. Several studies show that micronutrient supplementation starting in pregnancy can correct important maternal nutrient deficiencies, but effects on child health outcomes are disappointing. Other interventions to improve diet during pregnancy have had little effect on maternal and newborn health outcomes. Comparatively few interventions have been made for preconception diet and lifestyle. Improvements in the measurement of pregnancy planning have quantified the degree of pregnancy planning and suggest that it is more common than previously recognised. Planning for pregnancy is associated with a mixed pattern of health behaviours before conception. We propose novel definitions of the preconception period relating to embryo development and actions at individual or population level. A sharper focus on intervention before conception is needed to improve maternal and child health and reduce the growing burden of non-communicable diseases. Alongside continued efforts to reduce smoking, alcohol consumption, and obesity in the population, we call for heightened awareness of preconception health, particularly regarding diet and nutrition. Importantly, health professionals should be alerted to ways of identifying women who are planning a pregnancy.

Child and adolescent nutrient intakes from current national dietary surveys of European populations.

The WHO encourages national diet survey (NDS) implementation to obtain relevant data to inform policies addressing all forms of malnutrition, which remains a pressing issue throughout Europe. This paper provides an up-to-date review on energy, macro- and selected micronutrient intakes in children across WHO Europe using the latest available NDS intakes. It assesses these against WHO recommended nutrient intakes (RNI) to highlight vulnerable groups and areas of concern. Dietary survey information was gathered by Internet searches, contacting survey authors and nutrition experts. Survey characteristics, energy and nutrient intakes were extracted and weighted means calculated and presented by region. Child energy and nutrient intakes were extracted from twenty-one NDS across a third (n 18) of the fifty-three WHO Europe countries. Of these, 38 % (n 6) reported intakes by socio-economic group, but by various indicators. Energy and macronutrients, where boys and older children had higher intakes, were more widely reported than micronutrients. Most countries met under half of the WHO RNI for nutrients reported in their NDS. Micronutrient attainment was higher than macronutrients, but worst in girls and older children. Only a third, mainly Western, WHO European member states provided published data on child nutrient intakes. Gaps in provision mean that dietary inadequacies may go unidentified, preventing evidence-based policy formation. WHO RNI attainment was poor, particularly in girls and older children. Inconsistent age groups, dietary methodologies, nutrient composition databases and under-reporting hinder inter-country comparisons. Future efforts should encourage countries to conduct NDS in a standardised format by age and sociodemographic variables.

Comparison of consumed portion sizes and on-pack serving sizes of UK energy dense foods.

Studies indicate a 'portion size effect' association between increased portion size and energy intake, but direct links with obesity remain unproven. UK portion size guidance is outdated and evidence suggests that on-pack serving-sizes have increased in some energy-dense foods. Serving-sizes are compared with consumed portion sizes in popular energy, fat and sugar-dense foods, and patterns explored. Data was analysed for adults aged 19-64y (excluding under-reporters) from the UK National Diet & Nutrition Survey 2008-2014 (n = 2377) for consumed portion sizes and a commercial product database of major UK retailers provided serving-sizes. Popular energy-dense food groups were split into 45 product-based subgroups. Means of consumed portion size and on-pack serving-size were calculated and compared and nutrition per 100 g and per serve was explored. Just 57% products had serving-size compared to 97% with pack-size information. Serving-size ranges were wide and varied across food groups. Consumed portion sizes were significantly higher than on-pack serving-size in all main food groups and most subgroups. The greatest difference between consumed portion size and on-pack serving-size was Crisps (44%), and within this, 'popcorn' (151%). In Chocolate and Crisps, food subgroups with the largest on-pack serving-sizes were also the most macronutrient dense. Serving-size was unavailable for many products. However, where available, consumed portion sizes were higher than on-pack serving-size in all main food groups and most subgroups. The results could inform updated portion size guidance of energy-dense foods. Further work is needed to clarify whether smaller serving and pack sizes lead to lower total consumption and energy/nutrient intake.

Comparison of high and low trans-fatty acid consumers: analyses of UK National Diet and Nutrition Surveys before and after product reformulation.

OBJECTIVE: The WHO encourages the virtual elimination of artificial trans-fatty acids (TFA), which increase CHD risk. Our UK analysis explores whether voluntary reformulation results in differential TFA intakes among socio-economic groups by determining characteristics of high TFA consumers before and after product reformulation. DESIGN: Food intake was collected by 7d weighed records pre-reformulation and 4d diaries post-reformulation. Sociodemographic characteristics of TFA consumers above the WHO limit, and of the top 10 % of TFA consumers as a percentage food energy, were compared with those of lower TFA consumers. Multivariate logistic regression determined independent socio-economic predictors of being a top 10 % consumer. SUBJECTS: UK National Diet and Nutrition Surveys (NDNS) for adults aged 19-64 years pre-reformulation (2000/01; N 1724) and post-reformulation (2010/11-2011/12; N 848). RESULTS: Post-reformulation 2·5 % of adults exceeded the WHO limit, v. 57 % pre-reformulation. In unadjusted analyses, high TFA consumption was associated with lower income, lower education and long-term illness/disability pre- but not post-reformulation. In adjusted pre-reformulation analyses, degree holders were half as likely as those without qualifications to be top 10 % consumers (OR=0·51; 95 % CI 0·28, 0·92). In adjusted post-reformulation analyses, those with higher income were 2·5-3·3 times more likely to be top 10 % consumers than lowest income households. Pre-reformulation, high consumers consumed more foods containing artificial TFA, whereas ruminant TFA were more prominent post-reformulation. CONCLUSIONS: High TFA consumption was associated with socio-economic disadvantage pre-reformulation, but evidence of this is less clear post-reformulation. Voluntary reformulation appeared effective in reducing TFA content in many UK products with mixed effects on dietary inequalities relating to income and education.

Evaluation of the effectiveness of the Ministry of Food cooking programme on self-reported food consumption and confidence with cooking.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effectiveness of the Ministry of Food (MoF) cooking programme on self-reported food consumption and confidence with cooking. DESIGN: A quantitative and qualitative evaluation of the MoF 8-week cooking course, using a pre-test/post-test study. Pre, post and 6-month follow-up quantitative outcomes were measured using self-administered questionnaires to record number of portions of fruit and vegetables (F&V) consumed per day, number of snacks consumed per day and participants' cooking confidence levels (highest score of 5). Qualitative evaluations were undertaken using structured telephone interviews. SETTING: MoF centre in Leeds Kirkgate Market, UK. SUBJECTS: Adults (n 795, 43 % male) on MoF courses from 2010 to 2014, 462 of whom completed questionnaires at all three time points. RESULTS: Six months after the course, self-reported F&V intake increased significantly by 1·5 (95 % CI 1·3, 1·6, P<0·001) portions per day to 4·1 (95 % CI 4·0, 4·3). The number of snacks reported decreased significantly over the same period by -0·9 (CI-1·0, -0·8, P<0·001) snacks per day. Cooking confidence increased over the same period by 1·7 (95 % CI 1·6, 1·9, P<0·001) to 4·4 (CI 4·4, 4·5). Age and disability, but not deprivation or ethnicity, were associated with changes in self-reported F&V intake and cooking confidence scores at 6 months; and gender with the latter outcome. Qualitative results supported quantitative findings and revealed specific beneficial gains in cooking skills/preparation, nutritional awareness, food purchasing and other social benefits. CONCLUSIONS: MoF community-based cooking interventions can have significant positive effects on dietary behaviour, food choice and cooking confidence.

Evaluation of the impact of school gardening interventions on children's knowledge of and attitudes towards fruit and vegetables. A cluster randomised controlled trial.

Involvement of children in gardening has the potential to increase liking of fruit and vegetables (FV) and consequently, intake, but research results are mixed. School gardening led by external specialists such as the Royal Horticultural Society (RHS) could have more impact than teacher-led gardening on children's knowledge of, and attitudes towards, FV. Data from a cluster randomised controlled trial were used to compare a RHS-led school gardening intervention with a teacher-led gardening intervention amongst 7-10 year olds in 21 London schools. A short questionnaire was developed and used to identify children's knowledge and attitudes towards FV consumption before the garden intervention and 18 months afterwards. Results from multilevel regression models, both unadjusted and adjusted for baseline responses and socio-demographic factors, were reported. Attitudes to FV intake were compared between groups. Change in FV knowledge was used to predict change in FV consumption assessed using 24-hour food diaries. In comparison with the RHS-led group (n = 373), teacher-led children (n = 404) were more likely to agree they ate lots of fruit (p < 0.009) and tried new fruits (p = 0.045), but RHS-led gardening was associated with a greater increase in the total number of vegetables recognised (p = 0.031). No other differences in improvements in attitudes, or associations between change in FV recognition and intake were found. In relation to improvements in children's recognition and attitudes towards eating FV, this trial produced limited evidence that gardening activity packages led by external specialists (RHS-led) provide additional benefits over those led by teachers trained by the RHS. Indeed, the latter were potentially more effective.

High-dose vitamin C supplement use is associated with self-reported histories of breast cancer and other illnesses in the UK Women's Cohort Study.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether frequent vitamin C supplement use is associated with healthier behaviours, and a history of cancer and other illnesses in UK women. DESIGN: The present cross-sectional analysis examines the odds of taking supplements containing vitamin C as recorded in 4 d food diaries, based on lifestyle characteristics and morbidity history self-reported by questionnaire. SETTING: A large national UK cohort study. SUBJECTS: A total of 12,453 women aged between 37 and 79 years. RESULTS: Women frequently taking supplements containing vitamin C, compared to those who did not, had healthier behaviours, including higher consumption of fruit and vegetables. Frequent high-dose vitamin C users (≥1000 mg) had a higher socio-economic status, visited alternative practitioners more often than family or private doctors, and were more likely to be ex-smokers and to drink little or no alcohol. Women who self-reported having had cancer (OR = 1·33, 95% CI 1·00, 1·76) or specifically breast cancer (OR = 1·70, 95% CI 1·14, 2·55), or reported a family history of cancer (OR = 1·16, 95% CI 0·95, 1·41) or breast cancer (OR = 1·26, 95% CI 1·01, 1·58) had increased odds of being frequent high-dose users after adjusting for sociodemographic and health behaviours. Women with personal or family histories of some cardiovascular or intestinal disorders were more likely to take supplements containing vitamin C, though not necessarily at high doses. CONCLUSIONS: High-dose vitamin C intake by UK women was associated with healthier behaviours and a history of breast cancer, total cancer and other illnesses. Consequences of high-dose vitamin C supplement intake are not clear at the population level.

Assessing diet in European populations using national dietary surveys.

The WHO encourages countries to conduct national dietary surveys (NDS) to inform preventative policies targeting malnutrition and noncommunicable diseases. Previous reviews have found inadequate nutrient intakes and survey provision across Europe. This research is the first to provide an updated review of NDS provision within the whole WHO European Region, across the lifecourse, with reference to disadvantaged groups, obesity and nutrients of concern. Over a third of WHO European countries, mainly Central and Eastern European countries (CEEC), had no identifiable NDS. Where countries reported nutrient intakes, poor WHO recommended nutrient intake attainment was Europe-wide across the lifecourse, particularly in CEEC. Lower educated individuals had poorer diet quality. However, heterogeneity in age group sampled, dietary assessment method, nutrient composition database and under-reporting hindered inter-country comparisons. Average population trans fatty acid intakes below WHO recommended limits may hide inequalities in disadvantaged groups; legislative bans may help alleviate this. There were few associations between NDS-derived consumed food portion size (FPS) and BMI. However, consumed FPS was greater than on-pack serving-size in the majority of foods studied. This review illustrates how NDS can generate information on diet, nutrient intakes and the food environment. However, to enable valid inter-country comparisons, countries should be encouraged to conduct and report harmonised NDS, particularly in the age groups sampled, dietary assessment methodology, nutrient range, underpinning food composition database and treatment of under-reporters. This will aid effective, coordinated policy development that can have a real impact on dietary improvement, on a population and subgroup level, throughout Europe.

Non-Milk Extrinsic Sugars Intake and Food and Nutrient Consumption Patterns among Adolescents in the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey, Years 2008-16.

The revised guidelines from the Department of Health (DoH) in the UK state that mean population intakes of free sugars should be below 5% of the total energy (TE) consumption of the British population. However, very few studies have assessed the impact of this recommendation on diet quality in the UK. We explored the dietary patterns and intakes of micronutrients of British adolescents with low intakes of non-milk extrinsic sugars (NMES) (similar to free sugars but not equal, with slight differences in the categorisation of fruit sugars from dried, stewed or canned fruit and smoothies), using the National Diet and Nutrition Survey Rolling Programme, years 1-8 (NDNS RP). The sample included 2587 adolescents aged 11-18 years. Four percent (112) of adolescents reported consuming 5% or lower NMES as a proportion of TE. The odds of being categorised as a low-sugar consumer in adolescents (≤5% TE from NMES) were significantly lower with higher intakes of sweetened drinks, fruit juice, cakes, biscuits, sugar and sweet spreads, chocolate confectionery and sugar confectionery, and significantly higher with higher intakes of pasta and rice, wholemeal and brown bread, and fish. Across the five categories of NMES intakes, micronutrient intakes were lowest for those consuming either ≤5% TE or more than 20% TE from NMES, and optimal for those consuming between 10-15% of energy from NMES. These findings confirm the difficulties of meeting the free sugars recommended intake for adolescents. Care needs to be taken to ensure that an adequate consumption of micronutrients is achieved in those adhering to the revised guidelines on free sugars.

Relationship of the Frequency, Distribution, and Content of Meals/Snacks to Glycaemic Control in Gestational Diabetes: The myfood24 GDM Pilot Study.

This study examines nutritional intakes in Gestational diabetes mellitus piloting the myfood24 tool, to explore frequency of meals/snacks, and daily distribution of calories and carbohydrates in relation to glycaemic control. A total of 200 women aged 20-43 years were recruited into this prospective observational study between February 2015 and February 2016. Diet was assessed using myfood24, a novel online 24-h dietary recall tool. Out of 200 women 102 completed both ≥1 dietary recalls and all blood glucose measurements. Blood glucose was self-measured as part of usual care. Differences between groups meeting and exceeding glucose targets in relation to frequency of meal/snack consumption and nutrients were assessed using chi-squared and Mann-Whitney tests. Women achieving a fasting glucose target <5.3 mmol/L, compared to those exceeding it, consumed three meals (92% vs. 78%: p = 0.04) and three snacks (10% vs. 4%: p = 0.06) per day, compared with two or less; and in relation to evening snacks, consumed a higher percentage of daily energy (6% vs. 5%: p = 0.03) and carbohydrates (8% vs. 6%: p = 0.01). Achieving glycaemic control throughout the day was positively associated with snacking (p = 0.008). Achieving glucose targets was associated with having more snacks across the day, and may be associated with frequency and distribution of meals and nutrients. A larger study is required to confirm this.

Measuring energy, macro and micronutrient intake in UK children and adolescents: a comparison of validated dietary assessment tools.

BACKGROUND: Measuring dietary intake in children and adolescents can be challenging due to misreporting, difficulties in establishing portion size and reliance on recording dietary data via proxy reporters. The aim of this review was to present results from a recent systematic review of reviews reporting and comparing validated dietary assessment tools used in younger populations in the UK. METHODS: Validation data for dietary assessment tools used in younger populations (≤18 years) were extracted and summarised using results from a systematic review of reviews of validated dietary assessment tools. Mean differences and Bland-Altman limits of agreement (LOA) between the test and reference tool were extracted or calculated and compared for energy, macronutrients and micronutrients. RESULTS: Seventeen studies which reported validation of 14 dietary assessment tools (DATs) were identified with relevant nutrition information. The most commonly validated nutrients were energy, carbohydrate, protein, fat, calcium, iron, folate and vitamin C. There were no validated DATs reporting assessment of zinc, iodine or selenium intake. The most frequently used reference method was the weighed food diary, followed by doubly labelled water and 24 h recall. Summary plots were created to facilitate comparison between tools. On average, the test tools reported higher mean intakes than the reference methods with some studies consistently reporting wide LOA. Out of the 14 DATs, absolute values for LOA and mean difference were obtained for 11 DATs for EI. From the 24 validation results assessing EI, 16 (67%) reported higher mean intakes than the reference. Of the seven (29%) validation studies using doubly labelled water (DLW) as the reference, results for the test DATs were not substantially better or worse than those using other reference measures. Further information on the studies from this review is available on the www.nutritools.org website. CONCLUSIONS: Validated dietary assessment tools for use with children and adolescents in the UK have been identified and compared. Whilst tools are generally validated for macronutrient intakes, micronutrients are poorly evaluated. Validation studies that include estimates of zinc, selenium, dietary fibre, sugars and sodium are needed.

Portion Size of Energy-Dense Foods among French and UK Adults by BMI Status.

Evidence links consumed food portion size (FPS) and excess weight via increased energy intake. Policies to regulate on-pack serving sizes may be needed; determining consumed FPS of popular energy-dense foods for normal weight and overweight or obese (OWOB) adults, as reported here, may provide evidence to assist this. Data were analysed from national cross-sectional surveys, the French Étude Individuelle Nationale des Consommations Alimentaires2 2005⁻2007 (n = 2117), and UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey 2008⁻2014 (n = 3413). The impact of body mass index (BMI) on FPS is also investigated, adjusting for age, sex and under-reporting. Effects of under-reporting on relationships between FPS and BMI; and BMI on consumption frequency (UK only) were explored. OWOB reported larger FPS than normal-weight individuals in many, but not all food subgroups; however, there were only two significant FPS differences. In adjusted analyses, French individuals consumed 1.0 g (99% CI 0.01⁻2.1 p = 0.01) greater FPS in cakes for 1 point difference in BMI. 'Other cakes' and 'dark chocolate' were also significantly positively associated with BMI. High-fat bar snacks, but no UK main food groups, were positively associated with BMI. There was limited evidence of links between FPS and BMI in UK and French national cross-sectional data, possibly due to data limitations such as under-reporting. Future work should explore this and relationships between consumed FPS and on-pack suggested serving sizes to provide evidence to assist obesity-prevention policies.

National nutrition surveys in Europe: a review on the current status in the 53 countries of the WHO European region.

OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this study were (1) to determine the coverage of national nutrition surveys in the 53 countries monitored by the World Health Organization (WHO) Regional Office for Europe and identify gaps in provision, (2) to describe relevant survey attributes and (3) to check whether energy and nutrients are reported with a view to providing information for evidence-based nutrition policy planning. DESIGN: Dietary survey information was gathered using three methods: (1) direct email to survey authors and other relevant contacts, (2) systematic review of literature databases and (3) general web-based searches. Survey characteristics relating to time frame, sampling and dietary methodology and nutrients reported were tabled from all relevant surveys found since 1990. SETTING: Fifty-three countries of the WHO Regional Office for Europe, which have need for an overview of dietary surveys across the life course. SUBJECTS: European individuals (adults and children) in national diet surveys. RESULTS: A total of 109 nationally representative dietary surveys undertaken post-1990 were found across 34 countries. Of these, 78 surveys from 33 countries were found post-2000, and of these, 48 surveys from 27 countries included children and 60 surveys from 30 countries included adults. No nationally representative surveys were found for 19 of 53 countries, mainly from Central and Eastern Europe. Multiple 24hr recall and food diaries were the most common dietary assessment methods. Only 22 countries reported energy and nutrient intakes from post-2000 surveys; macronutrients were more widely reported than micronutrients. CONCLUSIONS: Less than two-thirds of WHO Europe countries have nationally representative diet surveys, mainly collected post-2000. The main availability gaps lie in Central and Eastern European countries, where nutrition policies may therefore lack an appropriate evidence base. Dietary methodological differences may limit the scope for inter-country comparisons.

Adult Nutrient Intakes from Current National Dietary Surveys of European Populations.

The World Health Organization (WHO) encourages countries to undertake national dietary survey (NDS) but implementation and reporting is inconsistent. This paper provides an up-to-date review of adult macro and micronutrient intakes in European populations as reported by NDS. It uses WHO Recommended Nutrient Intakes (RNIs) to assess intake adequacy and highlight areas of concern. NDS information was gathered primarily by internet searches and contacting survey authors and nutrition experts. Survey characteristics and adult intakes by gender/age group were extracted for selected nutrients and weighted means calculated by region. Of the 53 WHO Europe countries, over a third (n = 19), mainly Central & Eastern European countries (CEEC), had no identifiable NDS. Energy and nutrient intakes were extracted for 21 (40%) countries but differences in age group, methodology, under-reporting and nutrient composition databases hindered inter-country comparisons. No country met more than 39% WHO RNIs in all age/gender groups; macronutrient RNI achievement was poorer than micronutrient. Overall RNI attainment was slightly worse in CEEC and lower in women and female elderly. Only 40% countries provided adult energy and nutrient intakes. The main gaps lie in CEEC, where unknown nutrient deficiencies may occur. WHO RNI attainment was universally poor for macronutrients, especially for women, the female elderly and CEEC. All countries could be encouraged to report a uniform nutrient set and sub-analyses of nationally representative nutrient intakes.

Multiple health behaviours among mothers and partners in England: Clustering, social patterning and intra-couple concordance.

Research on multiple health behaviours is increasing but little is known about parental behaviours and how they covary. Our study investigates cigarette smoking, alcohol intake, fruit and vegetable (F&V) consumption and physical activity among mothers and co-resident partners in England. Using the UK Household Longitudinal Study, we examined (i) clustering of health behaviours using observed-expected ratios and latent class analysis (ii) socio-demographic correlates of the derived latent classes and (iii) intra-couple concordance of individual health behaviours and their latent classes. We identified five latent classes for mothers and partners: Never smoked drinkers (28% of mothers; 29% of partners), Abstainers (25%; 17%), Drinkers and ex-smokers (19%; 26%), Unhealthy low frequency drinkers (18%; 16%) and Unhealthiest behaviour group (11%; 12%). These had distinctive social profiles. Never smoked drinkers were more likely than those in other groups to be white and socially advantaged: married, older, and with higher educational qualifications and incomes. Abstainers were non-smokers who never or occasionally drank, and were disproportionately drawn from ethnic minority groups and middle/lower income families. Drinkers and ex-smokers were the most physically active group and were more likely to be socially advantaged. Unhealthy low frequency drinkers were more likely to be disadvantaged and have a limiting long-standing illness. The Unhealthiest behaviour group had the highest proportion of smokers, heavy smokers and binge drinkers and the lowest F&V intake and physical activity levels. They were largely white and socially disadvantaged: younger, non-married and with lower educational levels. Mothers and their partners typically shared the same risk behaviours, and 44 per cent of partners and mothers belonged to the same latent class. Our findings point to the potential for a broadening of research and policy perspectives, from separate behaviours to combinations of behaviours, and from individuals to the domestic units and communities of which they are part.

A Scoping Review of Observational Studies Examining Relationships between Environmental Behaviors and Health Behaviors.

Individual lifestyles are key drivers of both environmental change and chronic disease. We undertook a scoping review of peer-reviewed studies which examined associations between environmental and health behaviors of individuals in high-income countries. We searched EconLit, Medline, BIOSIS and the Social Science Citation Index. A total of 136 studies were included. The majority were USA-based cross-sectional studies using self-reported measures. Most of the evidence related to travel behavior, particularly active travel (walking and cycling) and physical activity (92 studies) or sedentary behaviors (19 studies). Associations of public transport use with physical activity were examined in 18 studies, and with sedentary behavior in one study. Four studies examined associations between car use and physical activity. A small number included other environmental behaviors (food-related behaviors (n = 14), including organic food, locally-sourced food and plate waste) and other health behaviors ((n = 20) smoking, dietary intake, alcohol). These results suggest that research on individual environmental and health behaviors consists largely of studies examining associations between travel mode and levels of physical activity. There appears to be less research on associations between other behaviors with environmental and health impacts, and very few longitudinal studies in any domain.

Differences in the social patterning of active travel between urban and rural populations: findings from a large UK household survey.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the social patterning of active travel of short journeys for urban and rural residents in a large UK representative sample. METHODS: Associations between frequently walking or cycling short journeys and socio-demographic factors in the UK Household Longitudinal Study were determined using logistic regression. RESULTS: Urban residents were 64 % more likely to frequently engage in active travel than rural residents (95 % CI 1.52, 1.77). Being younger, male, without full-time employment and having a lower income independently predicted greater active travel for both urban and rural residents. Degree level education and not having children were independent predictors for urban, but not rural residents. CONCLUSIONS: Actively travelling short journeys is less common and independently associated with fewer socio-demographic factors in rural than in urban populations.