Electron cryo-microscopy structure of the mechanotransduction channel NOMPC.

Mechanosensory transduction for senses such as proprioception, touch, balance, acceleration, hearing and pain relies on mechanotransduction channels, which convert mechanical stimuli into electrical signals in specialized sensory cells. How force gates mechanotransduction channels is a central question in the field, for which there are two major models. One is the membrane-tension model: force applied to the membrane generates a change in membrane tension that is sufficient to gate the channel, as in the bacterial MscL channel and certain eukaryotic potassium channels. The other is the tether model: force is transmitted via a tether to gate the channel. The transient receptor potential (TRP) channel NOMPC is important for mechanosensation-related behaviours such as locomotion, touch and sound sensation across different species including Caenorhabditis elegans, Drosophila and zebrafish. NOMPC is the founding member of the TRPN subfamily, and is thought to be gated by tethering of its ankyrin repeat domain to microtubules of the cytoskeleton. Thus, a goal of studying NOMPC is to reveal the underlying mechanism of force-induced gating, which could serve as a paradigm of the tether model. NOMPC fulfils all the criteria that apply to mechanotransduction channels and has 29 ankyrin repeats, the largest number among TRP channels. A key question is how the long ankyrin repeat domain is organized as a tether that can trigger channel gating. Here we present a de novo atomic structure of Drosophila NOMPC determined by single-particle electron cryo-microscopy. Structural analysis suggests that the ankyrin repeat domain of NOMPC resembles a helical spring, suggesting its role of linking mechanical displacement of the cytoskeleton to the opening of the channel. The NOMPC architecture underscores the basis of translating mechanical force into an electrical signal within a cell.

Nanometer-accuracy distance measurements between fluorophores at the single-molecule level.

Light microscopy is a powerful tool for probing the conformations of molecular machines at the single-molecule level. Single-molecule Förster resonance energy transfer can measure intramolecular distance changes of single molecules in the range of 2 to 8 nm. However, current superresolution measurements become error-prone below 25 nm. Thus, new single-molecule methods are needed for measuring distances in the 8- to 25-nm range. Here, we describe methods that utilize information about localization and imaging errors to measure distances between two different color fluorophores with ∼1-nm accuracy at distances >2 nm. These techniques can be implemented in high throughput using a standard total internal reflection fluorescence microscope and open-source software. We applied our two-color localization method to uncover an unexpected ∼4-nm nucleotide-dependent conformational change in the coiled-coil "stalk" of the motor protein dynein. We anticipate that these methods will be useful for high-accuracy distance measurements of single molecules over a wide range of length scales.

Tyrosination of α-tubulin controls the initiation of processive dynein-dynactin motility.

Post-translational modifications (PTMs) of α/ß-tubulin are believed to regulate interactions with microtubule-binding proteins. A well-characterized PTM involves in the removal and re-ligation of the C-terminal tyrosine on α-tubulin, but the purpose of this tyrosination-detyrosination cycle remains elusive. Here, we examined the processive motility of mammalian dynein complexed with dynactin and BicD2 (DDB) on tyrosinated versus detyrosinated microtubules. Motility was decreased ~fourfold on detyrosinated microtubules, constituting the largest effect of a tubulin PTM on motor function observed to date. This preference is mediated by dynactin's microtubule-binding p150 subunit rather than dynein itself. Interestingly, on a bipartite microtubule consisting of tyrosinated and detyrosinated segments, DDB molecules that initiated movement on tyrosinated tubulin continued moving into the segment composed of detyrosinated tubulin. This result indicates that the α-tubulin tyrosine facilitates initial motor-tubulin encounters, but is not needed for subsequent motility. Our results reveal a strong effect of the C-terminal α-tubulin tyrosine on dynein-dynactin motility and suggest that the tubulin tyrosination cycle could modulate the initiation of dynein-driven motility in cells.

Magnetic Cytoskeleton Affinity Purification of Microtubule Motors Conjugated to Quantum Dots.

We develop magnetic cytoskeleton affinity (MiCA) purification, which allows for rapid isolation of molecular motors conjugated to large multivalent quantum dots, in miniscule quantities, which is especially useful for single-molecule applications. When purifying labeled molecular motors, an excess of fluorophores or labels is usually used. However, large labels tend to sediment during the centrifugation step of microtubule affinity purification, a traditionally powerful technique for motor purification. This is solved with MiCA, and purification time is cut from 2 h to 20 min, a significant time-savings when it needs to be done daily. For kinesin, MiCA works with as little as 0.6 µg protein, with yield of ∼27%, compared to 41% with traditional purification. We show the utility of MiCA purification in a force-gliding assay with kinesin, allowing, for the first time, simultaneous determination of whether the force from each motor in a multiple-motor system drives or hinders microtubule movement. Furthermore, we demonstrate rapid purification of just 30 ng dynein-dynactin-BICD2N-QD (DDB-QD), ordinarily a difficult protein-complex to purify.

HkRP3 is a microtubule-binding protein regulating lytic granule clustering and NK cell killing.

NK cells provide host defense by killing viral-infected and cancerous cells through the secretion of preformed lytic granules. Polarization of the lytic granules toward the target cell is dependent on an intact microtubule (MT) network as well as MT motors. We have recently shown that DOCK8, a gene mutated in a primary immunodeficiency syndrome, is involved in NK cell killing in part through its effects on MT organizing center (MTOC) polarization. In this study, we identified Hook-related protein 3 (HkRP3) as a novel DOCK8- and MT-binding protein. We further show that HkRP3 is present in lytic granule fractions and interacts with the dynein motor complex and MTs. Significantly, depletion of HkPR3 impaired NK cell cytotoxicity, which could be attributed to a defect in not only MTOC polarity, but also impaired clustering of lytic granules around the MTOC. Our results demonstrate an important role for HkRP3 in regulating the clustering of lytic granules and MTOC repositioning during the development of NK cell-mediated killing.

Identification of small molecule inhibitors of G3BP-driven stress granule formation.

Stress granule formation is triggered by the release of mRNAs from polysomes and is promoted by the action of the RNA-binding proteins G3BP1/2. Stress granules have been implicated in several disease states, including cancer and neurodegeneration. Consequently, compounds that limit stress granule formation or promote their dissolution have potential as both experimental tools and novel therapeutics. Herein, we describe two small molecules, G3BP inhibitor a and b (G3Ia and G3Ib), designed to bind to a specific pocket in G3BP1/2 that is targeted by viral inhibitors of G3BP1/2 function. In addition to disrupting the co-condensation of RNA, G3BP1, and caprin 1 in vitro, these compounds inhibit stress granule formation in cells treated prior to or concurrent with stress and dissolve pre-existing stress granules. These effects are consistent across multiple cell types and a variety of initiating stressors. Thus, these compounds represent powerful tools to probe the biology of stress granules and hold promise for therapeutic interventions designed to modulate stress granule formation.

Identification of small molecule inhibitors of G3BP-driven stress granule formation.

Stress granule formation is triggered by the release of mRNAs from polysomes and is promoted by the action of the paralogs G3BP1 and G3BP2. G3BP1/2 proteins bind mRNAs and thereby promote the condensation of mRNPs into stress granules. Stress granules have been implicated in several disease states, including cancer and neurodegeneration. Consequently, compounds that limit stress granule formation or promote their dissolution have potential as both experimental tools and novel therapeutics. Herein, we describe two small molecules, referred to as G3BP inhibitor a and b (G3Ia and G3Ib), designed to bind to a specific pocket in G3BP1/2 that is known to be targeted by viral inhibitors of G3BP1/2 function. In addition to disrupting co-condensation of RNA, G3BP1, and caprin 1 in vitro, these compounds inhibit stress granule formation in cells treated prior to or concurrent with stress, and dissolve pre-existing stress granules when added to cells after stress granule formation. These effects are consistent across multiple cell types and a variety of initiating stressors. Thus, these compounds represent ideal tools to probe the biology of stress granules and hold promise for therapeutic interventions designed to modulate stress granule formation.

CRACR2a is a calcium-activated dynein adaptor protein that regulates endocytic traffic.

Cytoplasmic dynein is a minus end-directed microtubule motor that transports intracellular cargoes. Transport is initiated by coiled-coil adaptors that (a) join dynein and its cofactor dynactin into a motile complex and (b) interact with a cargo-bound receptor, which is frequently a Rab GTPase on an organelle. Here, we report two novel dynein adaptors, CRACR2a and Rab45, that have a coiled-coil adaptor domain, a pair of EF-hands, and a Rab GTPase fused into a single polypeptide. CRACR2a-mediated, but not Rab45-mediated, dynein motility is activated by calcium in vitro. In Jurkat T cells, elevation of intracellular calcium activates CRACR2a-mediated dynein transport. We further found that T cell receptor activation induces the formation of CRACR2a puncta at the plasma membrane, which initially associate with the actin cortex and subsequently detach and travel along microtubules, suggestive of an endocytic process. These results provide the first examples of Rab GTPases that directly act as dynein adaptors and implicate CRACR2a-dynein in calcium-regulated endocytic trafficking.

Disease-associated mutations in human BICD2 hyperactivate motility of dynein-dynactin.

Bicaudal D2 (BICD2) joins dynein with dynactin into a ternary complex (termed DDB) capable of processive movement. Point mutations in the BICD2 gene have been identified in patients with a dominant form of spinal muscular atrophy, but how these mutations cause disease is unknown. To investigate this question, we have developed in vitro motility assays with purified DDB and BICD2's membrane vesicle partner, the GTPase Rab6a. Rab6a-GTP, either in solution or bound to artificial liposomes, released BICD2 from an autoinhibited state and promoted robust dynein-dynactin transport. In these assays, BICD2 mutants showed an enhanced ability to form motile DDB complexes. Increased retrograde transport by BICD2 mutants also was observed in cells using an inducible organelle transport assay. When overexpressed in rat hippocampal neurons, the hyperactive BICD2 mutants decreased neurite growth. Our results reveal that dominant mutations in BICD2 hyperactivate DDB motility and suggest that an imbalance of minus versus plus end-directed microtubule motility in neurons may underlie spinal muscular atrophy.

Reversible Age-Related Phenotypes Induced during Larval Quiescence in C. elegans.

Cells can enter quiescent states in which cell cycling and growth are suspended. We find that during a long developmental arrest (quiescence) induced by starvation, newly hatched C. elegans acquire features associated with impaired proteostasis and aging: mitochondrial fission, ROS production, protein aggregation, decreased proteotoxic-stress resistance, and at the organismal level, decline of mobility and high mortality. All signs of aging but one, the presence of protein aggregates, were reversed upon return to development induced by feeding. The endoplasmic reticulum receptor IRE-1 is completely required for recovery, and the downstream transcription factor XBP-1, as well as a protein kinase, KGB-1, are partially required. Interestingly, kgb-1(-) mutants that do recover fail to reverse aging-like mitochondrial phenotypes and have a short adult lifespan. Our study describes the first pathway that reverses phenotypes of aging at the exit of prolonged quiescence.

Activation of cytoplasmic dynein motility by dynactin-cargo adapter complexes.

Cytoplasmic dynein is a molecular motor that transports a large variety of cargoes (e.g., organelles, messenger RNAs, and viruses) along microtubules over long intracellular distances. The dynactin protein complex is important for dynein activity in vivo, but its precise role has been unclear. Here, we found that purified mammalian dynein did not move processively on microtubules in vitro. However, when dynein formed a complex with dynactin and one of four different cargo-specific adapter proteins, the motor became ultraprocessive, moving for distances similar to those of native cargoes in living cells. Thus, we propose that dynein is largely inactive in the cytoplasm and that a variety of adapter proteins activate processive motility by linking dynactin to dynein only when the motor is bound to its proper cargo.

BRD4 coordinates recruitment of pause release factor P-TEFb and the pausing complex NELF/DSIF to regulate transcription elongation of interferon-stimulated genes.

RNA polymerase II (Pol II) and the pausing complex, NELF and DSIF, are detected near the transcription start site (TSS) of many active and silent genes. Active transcription starts when the pause release factor P-TEFb is recruited to initiate productive elongation. However, the mechanism of P-TEFb recruitment and regulation of NELF/DSIF during transcription is not fully understood. We investigated this question in interferon (IFN)-stimulated transcription, focusing on BRD4, a BET family protein that interacts with P-TEFb. Besides P-TEFb, BRD4 binds to acetylated histones through the bromodomain. We found that BRD4 and P-TEFb, although not present prior to IFN treatment, were robustly recruited to IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) after stimulation. Likewise, NELF and DSIF prior to stimulation were hardly detectable on ISGs, which were strongly recruited after IFN treatment. A shRNA-based knockdown assay of NELF revealed that it negatively regulates the passage of Pol II and DSIF across the ISGs during elongation, reducing total ISG transcript output. Analyses with a BRD4 small-molecule inhibitor showed that IFN-induced recruitment of P-TEFb and NELF/DSIF was under the control of BRD4. We suggest a model where BRD4 coordinates both positive and negative regulation of ISG elongation.

Proteomic survey of ubiquitin-linked nuclear proteins in interferon-stimulated macrophages.

Ubiquitin modification plays a critical role in immune responses. Some cytoplasmic factors require ubiquitination to execute proper signaling upon pathogen and cytokine stimulation. However, ubiquitin modification and its functional significance have not been fully studied for many nuclear proteins. We report here that stimulation of RAW macrophages with interferon-γ and toll-like receptor ligands that activates innate immune responses triggers a global increase in ubiquitinated proteins in the nucleus, pointing to the role for ubiquitin modification in regulating nuclear events during innate immune responses. By immunopurification and mass-spectrometry analyses, we found that more than 200 proteins are directly or indirectly associated with ubiquitin in stimulated RAW cells. These proteins included proteins in the ubiquitin pathways, those involved in DNA metabolism, chromatin and transcriptional regulation, and mRNA processing. The largest group of proteins found in our list was ribosomal proteins important for protein translation. Other proteins found here were heat shock proteins and stress-response factors, suggesting a link between macrophage activation and stress response. In conclusion, upon macrophage activation, a large number of nuclear proteins become associated with ubiquitin modification, presumably leading to a global shift in the genome activity, important for proper execution of innate immune responses.