Reduction of Z alpha-1 antitrypsin polymers in human iPSC-hepatocytes and mice by LRRK2 inhibitors.

BACKGROUND: Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency (A1ATD) is a life-threatening condition caused by the inheritance of the serpin family A member 1 "Z" genetic variant driving alpha-1 antitrypsin (AAT) protein misfolding in hepatocytes. There are no approved medicines for this disease. METHODS: We conducted a high-throughput image-based small molecule screen using patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cell-hepatocytes (iPSC-hepatocytes). Identified targets were validated in vitro using 3 independent patient iPSC lines. The effects of the identified target, leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), were further evaluated in an animal model of A1ATD through histology and immunohistochemistry and in an autophagy-reporter line. Autophagy induction was assessed through immunoblot and immunofluorescence analyses. RESULTS: Small-molecule screen performed in iPSC-hepatocytes identified LRRK2 as a potentially new therapeutic target. Of the commercially available LRRK2 inhibitors tested, we identified CZC-25146, a candidate with favorable pharmacokinetic properties, as capable of reducing polymer load, increasing normal AAT secretion, and reducing inflammatory cytokines in both cells and PiZ mice. Mechanistically, this effect was achieved through the induction of autophagy. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings support the use of CZC-25146 and leucine-rich repeat kinase-2 inhibitors in hepatic proteinopathy research and their further investigation as novel therapeutic candidates for A1ATD.

Probing of the reactive center loop region of alpha-1-antitrypsin by mutagenesis predicts new type-2 dysfunctional variants.

Lung disease in alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency (AATD) mainly results from insufficient control of the serine proteases neutrophil elastase (NE) and proteinase-3 due to reduced plasma levels of alpha-1-antitrypsin (AAT) variants. Mutations in the specificity-determining reactive center loop (RCL) of AAT would be predicted to minimally affect protein folding and secretion by hepatocytes but can impair anti-protease activity or alter the target protease. These properly secreted but dysfunctional 'type-2' variants would not be identified by common diagnostic protocols that are predicated on a reduction in circulating AAT. This has potential clinical relevance: in addition to the dysfunctional Pittsburgh and Iners variants reported previously, several uncharacterized RCL variants are present in genome variation databases. To prospectively evaluate the impact of RCL variations on secretion and anti-protease activity, here we performed a systematic screening of amino acid substitutions occurring at the AAT-NE interface. Twenty-three AAT variants that can result from single nucleotide polymorphisms in this region, including 11 present in sequence variation databases, were expressed in a mammalian cell model. All demonstrated unaltered protein folding and secretion. However, when their ability to form stable complexes with NE was evaluated by western blot, enzymatic assays, and a novel ELISA developed to quantify AAT-NE complexes, substrate-like and NE-binding deficient dysfunctional variants were identified. This emphasizes the ability of the RCL to accommodate inactivating substitutions without impacting the integrity of the native molecule and demonstrates that this class of molecule violates a generally accepted paradigm that equates circulating levels with functional protection of lung tissue.

Comprehensive Clinical Diagnostic Pipelines Reveal New Variants in Alpha-1 Antitrypsin Deficiency.

Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency (AATD) is an underdiagnosed disorder associated with mutations in the SERPINA1 gene encoding alpha-1 antitrypsin (AAT). Severe AATD can manifest as pulmonary emphysema and progressive liver disease. Besides the most common pathogenic variants S (E264V) and Z (E342K), many rarer genetic variants of AAT have been found in patients and in the general population. Here we report a panel of new SERPINA1 variants, including 4 null and 16 missense alleles, identified among a cohort of individuals with suspected AATD whose phenotypic follow-up showed inconclusive or atypical results. Because the pathogenic significance of the missense variants was unclear purely on the basis of clinical data, the integration of computational, biochemical, and cellular studies was used to define the associated risk of disease. Established pathogenicity predictors and structural analysis identified a panel of candidate damaging mutations that were characterized by expression in mammalian cell models. Polymer formation, intracellular accumulation, and secretory efficiency were evaluated experimentally. Our results identified two AAT mutants with a Z-like polymerogenic severe deficiency profile (Smilano and Mcampolongo) and three milder variants (Xsarezzo, Pdublin, and Ctiberias). Overall, the experimentally determined behavior of the variants was in agreement with the pathogenicity scores of the REVEL (an ensemble method for predicting the pathogenicity of rare missense variants) predictor, supporting the utility of this bioinformatic tool in the initial assessment of newly identified amino acid substitutions of AAT. Our study, in addition to describing 20 new SERPINA1 variants, provides a model for a multidisciplinary approach to classification of rare AAT variants and their clinical impact on individuals with rare AATD genotypes.

Keratin 8 is a scaffolding and regulatory protein of ERAD complexes.

Early recognition and enhanced degradation of misfolded proteins by the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) quality control and ER-associated degradation (ERAD) cause defective protein secretion and membrane targeting, as exemplified for Z-alpha-1-antitrypsin (Z-A1AT), responsible for alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency (A1ATD) and F508del-CFTR (cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator) responsible for cystic fibrosis (CF). Prompted by our previous observation that decreasing Keratin 8 (K8) expression increased trafficking of F508del-CFTR to the plasma membrane, we investigated whether K8 impacts trafficking of soluble misfolded Z-A1AT protein. The subsequent goal of this study was to elucidate the mechanism underlying the K8-dependent regulation of protein trafficking, focusing on the ERAD pathway. The results show that diminishing K8 concentration in HeLa cells enhances secretion of both Z-A1AT and wild-type (WT) A1AT with a 13-fold and fourfold increase, respectively. K8 down-regulation triggers ER failure and cellular apoptosis when ER stress is jointly elicited by conditional expression of the µs heavy chains, as previously shown for Hrd1 knock-out. Simultaneous K8 silencing and Hrd1 knock-out did not show any synergistic effect, consistent with K8 acting in the Hrd1-governed ERAD step. Fractionation and co-immunoprecipitation experiments reveal that K8 is recruited to ERAD complexes containing Derlin2, Sel1 and Hrd1 proteins upon expression of Z/WT-A1AT and F508del-CFTR. Treatment of the cells with c407, a small molecule inhibiting K8 interaction, decreases K8 and Derlin2 recruitment to high-order ERAD complexes. This was associated with increased Z-A1AT secretion in both HeLa and Z-homozygous A1ATD patients' respiratory cells. Overall, we provide evidence that K8 acts as an ERAD modulator. It may play a scaffolding protein role for early-stage ERAD complexes, regulating Hrd1-governed retrotranslocation initiation/ubiquitination processes. Targeting K8-containing ERAD complexes is an attractive strategy for the pharmacotherapy of A1ATD.

The development of highly potent and selective small molecule correctors of Z α1-antitrypsin misfolding.

α1-antitrypsin deficiency is characterised by the misfolding and intracellular polymerisation of mutant α1-antitrypsin protein within the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of hepatocytes. Small molecules that bind and stabilise Z α1-antitrypsin were identified via a DNA-encoded library screen. A subsequent structure based optimisation led to a series of highly potent, selective and cellular active α1-antitrypsin correctors.

The Importance of N186 in the Alpha-1-Antitrypsin Shutter Region Is Revealed by the Novel Bologna Deficiency Variant.

Alpha-1-antitrypsin (AAT) deficiency causes pulmonary disease due to decreased levels of circulating AAT and consequently unbalanced protease activity in the lungs. Deposition of specific AAT variants, such as the common Z AAT, within hepatocytes may also result in liver disease. These deposits are comprised of ordered polymers of AAT formed by an inter-molecular domain swap. The discovery and characterization of rare variants of AAT and other serpins have historically played a crucial role in the dissection of the structural mechanisms leading to AAT polymer formation. Here, we report a severely deficient shutter region variant, Bologna AAT (N186Y), which was identified in five unrelated subjects with different geographical origins. We characterized the new variant by expression in cellular models in comparison with known polymerogenic AAT variants. Bologna AAT showed secretion deficiency and intracellular accumulation as detergent-insoluble polymers. Extracellular polymers were detected in both the culture media of cells expressing Bologna AAT and in the plasma of a patient homozygous for this variant. Structural modelling revealed that the mutation disrupts the hydrogen bonding network in the AAT shutter region. These data support a crucial coordinating role for asparagine 186 and the importance of this network in promoting formation of the native structure.

An antibody that prevents serpin polymerisation acts by inducing a novel allosteric behaviour.

Serpins are important regulators of proteolytic pathways with an antiprotease activity that involves a conformational transition from a metastable to a hyperstable state. Certain mutations permit the transition to occur in the absence of a protease; when associated with an intermolecular interaction, this yields linear polymers of hyperstable serpin molecules, which accumulate at the site of synthesis. This is the basis of many pathologies termed the serpinopathies. We have previously identified a monoclonal antibody (mAb4B12) that, in single-chain form, blocks α1-antitrypsin (α1-AT) polymerisation in cells. Here, we describe the structural basis for this activity. The mAb4B12 epitope was found to encompass residues Glu32, Glu39 and His43 on helix A and Leu306 on helix I. This is not a region typically associated with the serpin mechanism of conformational change, and correspondingly the epitope was present in all tested structural forms of the protein. Antibody binding rendered ß-sheet A - on the opposite face of the molecule - more liable to adopt an 'open' state, mediated by changes distal to the breach region and proximal to helix F. The allosteric propagation of induced changes through the molecule was evidenced by an increased rate of peptide incorporation and destabilisation of a preformed serpin-enzyme complex following mAb4B12 binding. These data suggest that prematurely shifting the ß-sheet A equilibrium towards the 'open' state out of sequence with other changes suppresses polymer formation. This work identifies a region potentially exploitable for a rational design of ligands that is able to dynamically influence α1-AT polymerisation.

Deficiency Mutations of Alpha-1 Antitrypsin. Effects on Folding, Function, and Polymerization.

Misfolding, polymerization, and defective secretion of functional alpha-1 antitrypsin underlies the predisposition to severe liver and lung disease in alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency. We have identified a novel (Ala336Pro, Baghdad) deficiency variant and characterized it relative to the wild-type (M) and Glu342Lys (Z) alleles. The index case is a homozygous individual of consanguineous parentage, with levels of circulating alpha-1 antitrypsin in the moderate deficiency range, but is a biochemical phenotype that could not be classified by standard methods. The majority of the protein was present as functionally inactive polymer, and the remaining monomer was 37% active relative to the wild-type protein. These factors combined indicate an 85 to 95% functional deficiency, similar to that seen with ZZ homozygotes. Biochemical, biophysical, and computational studies further defined the molecular basis of this deficiency. These studies demonstrated that native Ala336Pro alpha-1 antitrypsin could populate the polymerogenic intermediate-and therefore polymerize-more readily than either wild-type alpha-1 antitrypsin or the Z variant. In contrast, folding was far less impaired in Ala336Pro alpha-1 antitrypsin than in the Z variant. The data are consistent with a disparate contribution by the "breach" region and "shutter" region of strand 5A to folding and polymerization mechanisms. Moreover, the findings demonstrate that, in these variants, folding efficiency does not correlate directly with the tendency to polymerize in vitro or in vivo. They therefore differentiate generalized misfolding from polymerization tendencies in missense variants of alpha-1 antitrypsin. Clinically, they further support the need to quantify loss-of-function in alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency to individualize patient care.

A single-chain variable fragment intrabody prevents intracellular polymerization of Z α1-antitrypsin while allowing its antiproteinase activity.

Mutant Z α1-antitrypsin (E342K) accumulates as polymers within the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of hepatocytes predisposing to liver disease, whereas low levels of circulating Z α1-antitrypsin lead to emphysema by loss of inhibition of neutrophil elastase. The ideal therapy should prevent polymer formation while preserving inhibitory activity. Here we used mAb technology to identify interactors with Z α1-antitrypsin that comply with both requirements. We report the generation of an mAb (4B12) that blocked α1-antitrypsin polymerization in vitro at a 1:1 molar ratio, causing a small increase of the stoichiometry of inhibition for neutrophil elastase. A single-chain variable fragment (scFv) intrabody was generated based on the sequence of mAb4B12. The expression of scFv4B12 within the ER (scFv4B12KDEL) and along the secretory pathway (scFv4B12) reduced the intracellular polymerization of Z α1-antitrypsin by 60%. The scFv4B12 intrabody also increased the secretion of Z α1-antitrypsin that retained inhibitory activity against neutrophil elastase. MAb4B12 recognized a discontinuous epitope probably located in the region of helices A/C/G/H/I and seems to act by altering protein dynamics rather than binding preferentially to the native state. This novel approach could reveal new target sites for small-molecule intervention that may block the transition to aberrant polymers without compromising the inhibitory activity of Z α1-antitrypsin.

An antibody raised against a pathogenic serpin variant induces mutant-like behaviour in the wild-type protein.

A monoclonal antibody (mAb) that binds to a transient intermediate may act as a catalyst for the corresponding reaction; here we show this principle can extend on a macro molecular scale to the induction of mutant-like oligomerization in a wild-type protein. Using the common pathogenic E342K (Z) variant of α1-antitrypsin as antigen-whose native state is susceptible to the formation of a proto-oligomeric intermediate-we have produced a mAb (5E3) that increases the rate of oligomerization of the wild-type (M) variant. Employing ELISA, gel shift, thermal stability and FRET time-course experiments, we show that mAb5E3 does not bind to the native state of α1-antitrypsin, but recognizes a cryptic epitope in the vicinity of the post-helix A loop and strand 4C that is revealed upon transition to the polymerization intermediate, and which persists in the ensuing oligomer. This epitope is not shared by loop-inserted monomeric conformations. We show the increased amenity to polymerization by either the pathogenic E342K mutation or the binding of mAb5E3 occurs without affecting the energetic barrier to polymerization. As mAb5E3 also does not alter the relative stability of the monomer to intermediate, it acts in a manner similar to the E342K mutant, by facilitating the conformational interchange between these two states.

Altered native stability is the dominant basis for susceptibility of α1-antitrypsin mutants to polymerization.

Serpins are protease inhibitors whose most stable state is achieved upon transition of a central 5-stranded ß-sheet to a 6-stranded form. Mutations, low pH, denaturants and elevated temperatures promote this transition, which can result in a growing polymer chain of inactive molecules. Different types of polymer are possible, but, experimentally only heat has been shown to generate polymers in vitro consistent with ex vivo pathological specimens. Many mutations that alter the rate of heat-induced polymerization have been described, but interpretation is problematic because discrimination is lacking between the effect of global changes in native stability and specific effects on structural mechanism. We show that the temperature midpoint (Tm) of thermal denaturation reflects the transition of α1-antitrypsin to the polymerization intermediate, and determine the relationship with fixed-temperature polymerization half-times (t0.5) in the presence of stabilizing additives [TMAO (trimethylamine N-oxide), sucrose and sodium sulfate], point mutations and disulfide bonds. Combined with a retrospective analysis of 31 mutants characterized in the literature, the results of the present study show that global changes to native state stability are the predominant basis for the effects of mutations and osmolytes on heat-induced polymerization, summarized by the equation: ln(t0.5,mutant/t0.5,wild-type)=0.34×ΔTm. It is deviations from this relationship that hold key information about the polymerization process.

A molecular switch governs the interaction between the human complement protease C1s and its substrate, complement C4.

The complement system is an ancient innate immune defense pathway that plays a front line role in eliminating microbial pathogens. Recognition of foreign targets by antibodies drives sequential activation of two serine proteases, C1r and C1s, which reside within the complement Component 1 (C1) complex. Active C1s propagates the immune response through its ability to bind and cleave the effector molecule complement Component 4 (C4). Currently, the precise structural and biochemical basis for the control of the interaction between C1s and C4 is unclear. Here, using surface plasmon resonance, we show that the transition of the C1s zymogen to the active form is essential for C1s binding to C4. To understand this, we determined the crystal structure of a zymogen C1s construct (comprising two complement control protein (CCP) domains and the serine protease (SP) domain). These data reveal that two loops (492-499 and 573-580) in the zymogen serine protease domain adopt a conformation that would be predicted to sterically abrogate C4 binding. The transition from zymogen to active C1s repositions both loops such that they would be able to interact with sulfotyrosine residues on C4. The structure also shows the junction of the CCP1 and CCP2 domains of C1s for the first time, yielding valuable information about the exosite for C4 binding located at this position. Together, these data provide a structural explanation for the control of the interaction with C1s and C4 and, furthermore, point to alternative strategies for developing therapeutic approaches for controlling activation of the complement cascade.

Suppression of Aß toxicity by puromycin-sensitive aminopeptidase is independent of its proteolytic activity.

The accumulation of ß-amyloid (Aß) peptide in the brain is one of the pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease and is thought to be of primary aetiological significance. In an unbiased genetic screen, we identified puromycin-sensitive aminopeptidase (PSA) as a potent suppressor of Aß toxicity in a Drosophila model system. We established that coexpression of Drosophila PSA (dPSA) in the flies' brains improved their lifespan, protected against locomotor deficits, and reduced brain Aß levels by clearing the Aß plaque-like deposits. However, confocal microscopy and subcellular fractionation of amyloid-expressing 7PA2 cells demonstrated that PSA localizes to the cytoplasm. Therefore, PSA and Aß are unlikely to be in the same cellular compartment; moreover, when we artificially placed them in the same compartment in flies, we could not detect a direct epistatic interaction. The consequent hypothesis that PSA's suppression of Aß toxicity is indirect was supported by the finding that Aß is not a proteolytic substrate for PSA in vitro. Furthermore, we showed that the enzymatic activity of PSA is not required for rescuing Aß toxicity in neuronal SH-SY5Y cells. We investigated whether the stimulation of autophagy by PSA was responsible for these protective effects. However PSA's promotion of autophagosome fusion with lysosomes required proteolytic activity and so its effect on autophagy is not identical to its protection against Aß toxicity.

A novel pathological mutant reveals the role of torsional flexibility in the serpin breach in adoption of an aggregation-prone intermediate.

Mutants of alpha-1-antitrypsin cause the protein to self-associate and form ordered aggregates ('polymers') that are retained within hepatocytes, resulting in a predisposition to the development of liver disease. The associated reduction in secretion, and for some mutants, impairment of function, leads to a failure to protect lung tissue against proteases released during the inflammatory response and an increased risk of emphysema. We report here a novel deficiency mutation (Gly192Cys), that we name the Sydney variant, identified in a patient in heterozygosity with the Z allele (Glu342Lys). Cellular analysis revealed that the novel variant was mostly retained as insoluble polymers within the endoplasmic reticulum. The basis for this behaviour was investigated using biophysical and structural techniques. The variant showed a 40% reduction in inhibitory activity and a reduced stability as assessed by thermal unfolding experiments. Polymerisation involves adoption of an aggregation-prone intermediate and paradoxically the energy barrier for transition to this state was increased by 16% for the Gly192Cys variant with respect to the wild-type protein. However, with activation to the intermediate state, polymerisation occurred at a 3.8-fold faster rate overall. X-ray crystallography provided two crystal structures of the Gly192Cys variant, revealing perturbation within the 'breach' region with Cys192 in two different orientations: in one structure it faces towards the hydrophobic core while in the second it is solvent-exposed. This orientational heterogeneity was confirmed by PEGylation. These data show the critical role of the torsional freedom imparted by Gly192 in inhibitory activity and stability against polymerisation.

The under-appreciated world of the serpin family of serine proteinase inhibitors.

In the practice of medicine, many fundamental biological pathways that require tight on/off control, such as inflammation and circulatory homeostasis, are regulated by serine proteinases, but we rarely consider the unique protease inhibitors that, in turn, regulate these proteases. The serpins are a family of proteins with a shared tertiary structure, whose members largely act as serine protease inhibitors, found in all forms of life, ranging from viruses, bacteria, and archaea to plants and animals. These proteins represent up to 2-10% of proteins in the human blood and are the third most common protein family.

Characterisation of serpin polymers in vitro and in vivo.

Neuroserpin is a member of the serine protease inhibitor or serpin superfamily of proteins. It is secreted by neurones and plays an important role in the regulation of tissue plasminogen activator at the synapse. Point mutations in the neuroserpin gene cause the autosomal dominant dementia familial encephalopathy with neuroserpin inclusion bodies or FENIB. This is one of a group of disorders caused by mutations in the serpins that are collectively known as the serpinopathies. Others include α(1)-antitrypsin deficiency and deficiency of C1 inhibitor, antithrombin and α(1)-antichymotrypsin. The serpinopathies are characterised by delays in protein folding and the retention of ordered polymers of the mutant serpin within the cell of synthesis. The clinical phenotype results from either a toxic gain of function from the inclusions or a loss of function, as there is insufficient protease inhibitor to regulate important proteolytic cascades. We describe here the methods required to characterise the polymerisation of neuroserpin and draw parallels with the polymerisation of α(1)-antitrypsin. It is important to recognise that the conditions in which experiments are performed will have a major effect on the findings. For example, incubation of monomeric serpins with guanidine or urea will produce polymers that are not found in vivo. The characterisation of the pathological polymers requires heating of the folded protein or alternatively the assessment of ordered polymers from cell and animal models of disease or from the tissues of humans who carry the mutation.

Structure of granzyme C reveals an unusual mechanism of protease autoinhibition.

Proteases act in important homeostatic pathways and are tightly regulated. Here, we report an unusual structural mechanism of regulation observed by the 2.5-A X-ray crystal structure of the serine protease, granzyme C. Although the active-site triad residues adopt canonical conformations, the oxyanion hole is improperly formed, and access to the primary specificity (S1) pocket is blocked through a reversible rearrangement involving Phe-191. Specifically, a register shift in the 190-strand preceding the active-site serine leads to Phe-191 filling the S1 pocket. Mutation of a unique Glu-Glu motif at positions 192-193 unlocks the enzyme, which displays chymase activity, and proteomic analysis confirms that activity of the wild-type protease can be released through interactions with an appropriate substrate. The 2.5-A structure of the unlocked enzyme reveals unprecedented flexibility in the 190-strand preceding the active-site serine that results in Phe-191 vacating the S1 pocket. Overall, these observations describe a broadly applicable mechanism of protease regulation that cannot be predicted by template-based modeling or bioinformatic approaches alone.

Dual reactivity disulfide bridging reagents; enabling new approaches to antibody fragment bioconjugation.

Disulfide bridging, also known as disulfide stapling, is a powerful strategy for the construction of site-selective protein bioconjugates. Here we describe the first examples of a new class of such reagents, containing a 'stable-labile' design. These dual-reactive reagents are designed to form a stable bond to one cysteine and a labile bond to the second; resulting in a robust attachment to the protein with one end of the bridge, whilst the other end serves as a reactive handle for subsequent bioconjugation. By incorporating thioesters into these bridges, we demonstrate that they are primed for native chemical ligation (NCL) with N-terminal cysteines; offering an alternative to the requirement for C-terminal thioesters for use in such ligations. Alternatively, the use of hydrazine as the ligating nucleophile enables a separate cargo to be attached to each cysteine residue, which are exploited to insert variably cleavable linkers. These methodologies are demonstrated on an antibody fragment, and serve to expand the scope of disulfide bridging strategies whilst offering a convenient route to the construction of multifunctional antibody fragment conjugates.

The molecular species responsible for α1 -antitrypsin deficiency are suppressed by a small molecule chaperone.

The formation of ordered Z (Glu342Lys) α1 -antitrypsin polymers in hepatocytes is central to liver disease in α1 -antitrypsin deficiency. In vitro experiments have identified an intermediate conformational state (M*) that precedes polymer formation, but this has yet to be identified in vivo. Moreover, the mechanism of polymer formation and their fate in cells have been incompletely characterised. We have used cell models of disease in conjunction with conformation-selective monoclonal antibodies and a small molecule inhibitor of polymerisation to define the dynamics of polymer formation, accumulation and secretion. Pulse-chase experiments demonstrate that Z α1 -antitrypsin accumulates as short-chain polymers that partition with soluble cellular components and are partially secreted by cells. These precede the formation of larger, insoluble polymers with a longer half-life (10.9 ± 1.7 h and 20.9 ± 7.4 h for soluble and insoluble polymers, respectively). The M* intermediate (or a by-product thereof) was identified in the cells by a conformation-specific monoclonal antibody. This was completely abrogated by treatment with the small molecule, which also blocked the formation of intracellular polymers. These data allow us to conclude that the M* conformation is central to polymerisation of Z α1 -antitrypsin in vivo; preventing its accumulation represents a tractable approach for pharmacological treatment of this condition; polymers are partially secreted; and polymers exist as two distinct populations in cells whose different dynamics have likely consequences for the aetiology of the disease.

Scaling Concepts in Serpin Polymer Physics.

α1-Antitrypsin is a protease inhibitor belonging to the serpin family. Serpin polymerisation is at the core of a class of genetic conformational diseases called serpinopathies. These polymers are known to be unbranched, flexible, and heterogeneous in size with a beads-on-a-string appearance viewed by negative stain electron microscopy. Here, we use atomic force microscopy and time-lapse dynamic light scattering to measure polymer size and shape for wild-type (M) and Glu342→Lys (Z) α1-antitrypsin, the most common variant that leads to severe pathological deficiency. Our data for small polymers deposited onto mica and in solution reveal a power law relation between the polymer size, namely the end-to-end distance or the hydrodynamic radius, and the polymer mass, proportional to the contour length. We use the scaling concepts of polymer physics to assess that α1-antitrypsin polymers are random linear chains with a low persistence length.