Insights into Land Plant Evolution Garnered from the Marchantia polymorpha Genome.

The evolution of land flora transformed the terrestrial environment. Land plants evolved from an ancestral charophycean alga from which they inherited developmental, biochemical, and cell biological attributes. Additional biochemical and physiological adaptations to land, and a life cycle with an alternation between multicellular haploid and diploid generations that facilitated efficient dispersal of desiccation tolerant spores, evolved in the ancestral land plant. We analyzed the genome of the liverwort Marchantia polymorpha, a member of a basal land plant lineage. Relative to charophycean algae, land plant genomes are characterized by genes encoding novel biochemical pathways, new phytohormone signaling pathways (notably auxin), expanded repertoires of signaling pathways, and increased diversity in some transcription factor families. Compared with other sequenced land plants, M. polymorpha exhibits low genetic redundancy in most regulatory pathways, with this portion of its genome resembling that predicted for the ancestral land plant. PAPERCLIP.

Diminished Auxin Signaling Triggers Cellular Reprogramming by Inducing a Regeneration Factor in the Liverwort Marchantia polymorpha.

Regeneration in land plants is accompanied by the establishment of new stem cells, which often involves reactivation of the cell division potential in differentiated cells. The phytohormone auxin plays pivotal roles in this process. In bryophytes, regeneration is enhanced by the removal of the apex and repressed by exogenously applied auxin, which has long been proposed as a form of apical dominance. However, the molecular basis behind these observations remains unexplored. Here, we demonstrate that in the liverwort Marchantia polymorpha, the level of endogenous auxin is transiently decreased in the cut surface of decapitated explants, and identify by transcriptome analysis a key transcription factor gene, LOW-AUXIN RESPONSIVE (MpLAXR), which is induced upon auxin reduction. Loss of MpLAXR function resulted in delayed cell cycle reactivation, and transient expression of MpLAXR was sufficient to overcome the inhibition of regeneration by exogenously applied auxin. Furthermore, ectopic expression of MpLAXR caused cell proliferation in normally quiescent tissues. Together, these data indicate that decapitation causes a reduction of auxin level at the cut surface, where, in response, MpLAXR is up-regulated to trigger cellular reprogramming. MpLAXR is an ortholog of Arabidopsis ENHANCER OF SHOOT REGENERATION 1/DORNRÖSCHEN, which has dual functions as a shoot regeneration factor and a regulator of axillary meristem initiation, the latter of which requires a low auxin level. Thus, our findings provide insights into stem cell regulation as well as apical dominance establishment in land plants.

A conserved regulatory mechanism mediates the convergent evolution of plant shoot lateral organs.

Land plant shoot structures evolved a diversity of lateral organs as morphological adaptations to the terrestrial environment, with lateral organs arising independently in different lineages. Vascular plants and bryophytes (basally diverging land plants) develop lateral organs from meristems of sporophytes and gametophytes, respectively. Understanding the mechanisms of lateral organ development among divergent plant lineages is crucial for understanding the evolutionary process of morphological diversification of land plants. However, our current knowledge of lateral organ differentiation mechanisms comes almost entirely from studies of seed plants, and thus, it remains unclear how these lateral structures evolved and whether common regulatory mechanisms control the development of analogous lateral organs. Here, we performed a mutant screen in the liverwort Marchantia polymorpha, a bryophyte, which produces gametophyte axes with nonphotosynthetic scalelike lateral organs. We found that an Arabidopsis LIGHT-DEPENDENT SHORT HYPOCOTYLS 1 and Oryza G1 (ALOG) family protein, named M. polymorpha LATERAL ORGAN SUPRESSOR 1 (MpLOS1), regulates meristem maintenance and lateral organ development in Marchantia. A mutation in MpLOS1, preferentially expressed in lateral organs, induces lateral organs with misspecified identity and increased cell number and, furthermore, causes defects in apical meristem maintenance. Remarkably, MpLOS1 expression rescued the elongated spikelet phenotype of a MpLOS1 homolog in rice. This suggests that ALOG genes regulate the development of lateral organs in both gametophyte and sporophyte shoots by repressing cell divisions. We propose that the recruitment of ALOG-mediated growth repression was in part responsible for the convergent evolution of independently evolved lateral organs among highly divergent plant lineages, contributing to the morphological diversification of land plants.

Control of proliferation in the haploid meristem by CLE peptide signaling in Marchantia polymorpha.

The homeostasis of meristems in flowering plants is maintained by cell-to-cell communication via CLE (CLAVATA3/EMBRYO SURROUNDING REGION-related) peptide hormones. In contrast, cell signals that regulate meristem activity remains elusive in bryophytes that maintain apical meristems in the gametophyte (haploid) body and undergo a gametophyte-dominant life cycle. We here show that MpCLE1 confines the proliferative activity of gametophytic meristem and affects the overall size of gametangiophores (reproductive organs) in Marchantia polymorpha, which is in sharp contrast with the meristem-promoting function of its ortholog TDIF/CLE41/CLE44 in Arabidopsis vascular meristems. Expression analysis suggests that MpCLE1 and its receptor gene MpTDR are expressed in distinct patterns across the apical meristem. These data suggest that local CLE peptide signaling may have had a role in regulating cell proliferation in the shoot meristem in the ancestral land plant and acts in both sporophytic and gametophytic meristems of extant plants.

ANGUSTIFOLIA contributes to the regulation of three-dimensional morphogenesis in the liverwort Marchantia polymorpha.

Arabidopsis thaliana mutants deficient in ANGUSTIFOLIA (AN) exhibit several phenotypes at the sporophyte stage, such as narrow and thicker leaves, trichomes with two branches, and twisted fruits. It is thought that these phenotypes are caused by abnormal arrangement of cortical microtubules (MTs). AN homologs are present in the genomes of diverse land plants, including the basal land plant Marchantia polymorpha, and their molecular functions have been shown to be evolutionarily conserved in terms of the ability to complement the A. thaliana an-1 mutation. However, the roles of ANs in bryophytes, the life cycle of which includes a dominant haploid gametophyte generation, remain unknown. Here, we have examined the roles of AN homologs in the model bryophyte M. polymorpha (MpAN). Mpan knockout mutants showed abnormal twisted thalli and suppressed thallus growth along the growth axis. Under weak blue light conditions, elongated thallus growth was observed in wild-type plants, whereas it was suppressed in the mutants. Moreover, disordered cortical MT orientations were observed. Our findings suggest that MpAN contributes to three-dimensional morphogenesis by regulating cortical MT arrangement in the gametophytes of bryophytes.

Ligand-receptor co-evolution shaped the jasmonate pathway in land plants.

The phytohormone jasmonoyl-isoleucine (JA-Ile) regulates defense, growth and developmental responses in vascular plants. Bryophytes have conserved sequences for all JA-Ile signaling pathway components but lack JA-Ile. We show that, in spite of 450 million years of independent evolution, the JA-Ile receptor COI1 is functionally conserved between the bryophyte Marchantia polymorpha and the eudicot Arabidopsis thaliana but COI1 responds to different ligands in each species. We identified the ligand of Marchantia MpCOI1 as two isomeric forms of the JA-Ile precursor dinor-OPDA (dinor-cis-OPDA and dinor-iso-OPDA). We demonstrate that AtCOI1 functionally complements Mpcoi1 mutation and confers JA-Ile responsiveness and that a single-residue substitution in MpCOI1 is responsible for the evolutionary switch in ligand specificity. Our results identify the ancestral bioactive jasmonate and clarify its biosynthetic pathway, demonstrate the functional conservation of its signaling pathway, and show that JA-Ile and COI1 emergence in vascular plants required co-evolution of hormone biosynthetic complexity and receptor specificity.

Physiological function of photoreceptor UVR8 in UV-B tolerance in the liverwort Marchantia polymorpha.

MAIN CONCLUSION: The physiological importance of MpUVR8 in UV-B resistance and translocation in a UV-B-dependent manner from the cytosol into the nucleus is characterized in Marchantia polymorpha. UV RESISTANCE LOCUS 8 (UVR8) is an ultraviolet-B (UV-B) light receptor functioning for UV-B sensing and tolerance in Arabidopsis thaliana and other species. It is unclear whether UVR8 physiologically functions in UV-B-induced defense responses in Marchantia polymorpha, which belongs to the earliest diverging group of embryophyte lineages. Here, we demonstrate that UVR8 has a physiological function in UV-B tolerance and that there is a UVR8-dependent pathway involved. In addition, a UVR8-independent pathway is revealed. We examine the tissue-specific expression pattern of M. polymorpha UVR8 (MpUVR8), showing that it is highly expressed in the apical notch in thalli and gametangiophores, as well as in antheridial and archegonial heads. Furthermore, Mpuvr8KO plant transformants, in which the MpUVR8 locus was disrupted, were produced and analyzed to understand the physiological and molecular function of MpUVR8. Analysis using these plants indicates the important roles of MpUVR8 and MpUVR8-regulated genes, and of MpUVR8-independent pathways in UV-B tolerance. Subcellular localization of Citrine-fused MpUVR8 in M. polymorpha cells was also investigated. It was found to translocate from the cytosol into the nucleus in response to UV-B irradiation. Our findings indicate strong conservation of the physiological function of UVR8 and the molecular mechanisms for UVR8-dependent signal transduction through regulation of gene expression in embryophytes.

Conditional Gene Expression/Deletion Systems for Marchantia polymorpha Using its Own Heat-Shock Promoter and Cre/loxP-Mediated Site-Specific Recombination.

The liverwort Marchantia polymorpha is an emerging model plant suitable for addressing, using genetic approaches, various evolutionary questions in the land plant lineage. Haploid dominancy in its life cycle facilitates genetic analyses, but conversely limits the ability to isolate mutants of essential genes. To overcome this issue and to be employed in cell lineage, mosaic and cell autonomy analyses, we developed a system that allows conditional gene expression and deletion using a promoter of a heat-shock protein (HSP) gene and the Cre/loxP site-specific recombination system. Because the widely used promoter of the Arabidopsis HSP18.2 gene did not operate in M. polymorpha, we identified a promoter of an endogenous HSP gene, MpHSP17.8A1, which exhibited a highly inducible transient expression level upon heat shock with a low basal activity level. Reporter genes fused to this promoter were induced globally in thalli under whole-plant heat treatment and also locally using a laser-assisted targeted heating technique. By expressing Cre fused to the glucocorticoid receptor under the control of the MpHSP17.8A1 promoter, a low background, sufficiently inducible control for loxP-mediated recombination could be achieved in M. polymorpha. Based on these findings, we developed a Gateway technology-based binary vector for the conditional induction of gene deletions.

Proteomics analysis reveals a highly heterogeneous proteasome composition and the post-translational regulation of peptidase activity under pathogen signaling in plants.

The proteasome is a large multisubunit complex that plays a crucial role in the removal of damaged or selective ubiquitinated proteins, thereby allowing quality control of cellular proteins and restricted regulation of diverse cellular signaling in eukaryotic cells. Proteasome-dependent protein degradation is involved in almost all aspects of plant growth and responses to environmental stresses including pathogen resistance. Although the molecular mechanism for specifying targets by ubiquitin ligases is well understood, the detailed characterization of the plant proteasome complex remains unclear. One of the most important features of the plant proteasome is that most subunits are encoded by duplicate genes, suggesting the highly heterogeneous composition of this proteasome. Here, we performed affinity purification and a combination of 2-dimensional electrophoresis and mass spectrometry, which identified the detailed composition of paralogous and modified proteins. Moreover, these proteomics approaches revealed that specific subunit composition and proteasome peptidase activity were affected by pathogen-derived MAMPs, flg22 treatment. Interestingly, flg22 treatment did not alter mRNA expression levels of the peptidase genes PBA, PBB1/2, PBE1/2, and total proteasome levels remained unchanged by flg22 as well. These results demonstrate the finely tuned mechanism that regulates proteasome function via putative post-translational modifications in response to environmental stress in plants.

Induction of Multichotomous Branching by CLAVATA Peptide in Marchantia polymorpha.

A key innovation in land plants was the evolution of meristems with stem cells possessing multiple cutting faces (division planes) from which three-dimensional growth is derived in both haploid (gametophyte) and diploid (sporophyte) generations [1-3]. Within each meristem exists a pool of stem cells that must be maintained at a relatively constant size for development to occur appropriately [4-6]. In flowering plants, stem cells of the diploid generation are maintained by CLAVATA3/EMBRYO SURROUNDING REGION-related (CLE) peptide signaling [7, 8]. In the liverwort Marchantia polymorpha, the haploid body undergoes dichotomous branching, an ancestral characteristic of growth derived from the meristem, in which two equivalent body axes are developed via stem cell division, regulated by unknown molecular mechanisms. We show here that in M. polymorpha, treatment with MpCLE2/CLAVATA3 (CLV3) peptide resulted in the accumulation of undifferentiated cells, marked by MpYUC2 expression, in the apical meristem. Removal of MpCLE2 peptide resulted in multichotomous branching from the accumulated cells. Genetic analysis demonstrated that the CLAVATA1 (MpCLV1) receptor, but not the WUSCHEL-related HOMEOBOX (MpWOX) transcription factor, is responsible for MpCLE2 peptide signaling. In the apical meristem, MpCLV1 was expressed broadly in the central region, including the MpYUC2-positive area, whereas MpCLE2 was expressed in a largely complementary manner compared to MpYUC2, suggesting MpCLE2 mediates local cell-to-cell communication. CLV3/CLE peptide, a negative regulator of diploid stem cells in flowering plants, acts as a haploid stem cell-promoting signal in M. polymorpha, implicating a critical role for this pathway in the evolution of body plan in land plants.

The liverwort oil body is formed by redirection of the secretory pathway.

Eukaryotic cells acquired novel organelles during evolution through mechanisms that remain largely obscure. The existence of the unique oil body compartment is a synapomorphy of liverworts that represents lineage-specific acquisition of this organelle during evolution, although its origin, biogenesis, and physiological function are yet unknown. We find that two paralogous syntaxin-1 homologs in the liverwort Marchantia polymorpha are distinctly targeted to forming cell plates and the oil body, suggesting that these structures share some developmental similarity. Oil body formation is regulated by an ERF/AP2-type transcription factor and loss of the oil body increases M. polymorpha herbivory. These findings highlight a common strategy for the acquisition of organelles with distinct functions in plants, via periodical redirection of the secretory pathway depending on cellular phase transition.

Novel gateway binary vectors for rapid tripartite DNA assembly and promoter analysis with various reporters and tags in the liverwort Marchantia polymorpha.

The liverwort Marchantia polymorpha is an emerging model species for basal lineage plant research. In this study, two Gateway cloning-compatible binary vector series, R4pMpGWB and R4L1pMpGWB, were generated to facilitate production of transgenic M. polymorpha. The R4pMpGWB series allows tripartite recombination of any promoter and any coding sequence with a specific reporter or tag. Reporters/tags for the R4pMpGWB series are GUS, ELuc(PEST), FLAG, 3×HA, 4×Myc, mRFP1, Citrine, mCitrine, ER-targeted mCitrine and nucleus-targeted mCitrine. The R4L1pMpGWB series is suitable for promoter analysis. R4L1pMpGWB vector structure is the same as that of R4pMpGWB vectors, except that the attR2 site is replaced with attL1, enabling bipartite recombination of any promoter with a reporter or tag. Reporters/tags for the R4L1pMpGWB series are GUS, G3GFP-GUS, LUC, ELuc(PEST), Citrine, mCitrine, ER-targeted mCitrine and mCitrine-NLS. Both vector series were functional in M. polymorpha cells. These vectors will facilitate the design and assembly of plasmid constructs and generation of transgenic M. polymorpha.

Generative Cell Specification Requires Transcription Factors Evolutionarily Conserved in Land Plants.

Land plants differentiate germ cells in the haploid gametophyte. In flowering plants, a generative cell is specified as a precursor that subsequently divides into two sperm cells in the developing male gametophyte, pollen. Generative cell specification requires cell-cycle control and microtubule-dependent nuclear relocation (reviewed in [1-3]). However, the generative cell fate determinant and its evolutionary origin are still unknown. In bryophytes, gametophytes produce eggs and sperm in multicellular reproductive organs called archegonia and antheridia, respectively, or collectively called gametangia. Given the monophyletic origin of land plants [4-6], evolutionarily conserved mechanisms may play key roles in these diverse reproductive processes. Here, we showed that a single member of the subfamily VIIIa of basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factors in the liverwort Marchantia polymorpha primarily accumulated in the initial cells and controlled their development into gametangia. We then demonstrated that an Arabidopsis thaliana VIIIa bHLH transiently accumulated in the smaller daughter cell after an asymmetric division of the meiosis-derived microspore and was required for generative cell specification redundantly with its paralog. Furthermore, these A. thaliana VIIIa bHLHs were functionally replaceable by the M. polymorpha VIIIa bHLH. These findings suggest the VIIIa bHLH proteins as core regulators for reproductive development, including germ cell differentiation, since an early stage of land plant evolution.

Efficient CRISPR/Cas9-based genome editing and its application to conditional genetic analysis in Marchantia polymorpha.

Marchantia polymorpha is one of the model species of basal land plants. Although CRISPR/Cas9-based genome editing has already been demonstrated for this plant, the efficiency was too low to apply to functional analysis. In this study, we show the establishment of CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing vectors with high efficiency for both construction and genome editing. Codon optimization of Cas9 to Arabidopsis achieved over 70% genome editing efficiency at two loci tested. Systematic assessment revealed that guide sequences of 17 nt or shorter dramatically decreased this efficiency. We also demonstrated that a combinatorial use of this system and a floxed complementation construct enabled conditional analysis of a nearly essential gene. This study reports that simple, rapid, and efficient genome editing is feasible with the series of developed vectors.

Development of Gateway Binary Vector Series with Four Different Selection Markers for the Liverwort Marchantia polymorpha.

We previously reported Agrobacterium-mediated transformation methods for the liverwort Marchantia polymorpha using the hygromycin phosphotransferase gene as a marker for selection with hygromycin. In this study, we developed three additional markers for M. polymorpha transformation: the gentamicin 3'-acetyltransferase gene for selection with gentamicin; a mutated acetolactate synthase gene for selection with chlorsulfuron; and the neomycin phosphotransferase II gene for selection with G418. Based on these four marker genes, we have constructed a series of Gateway binary vectors designed for transgenic experiments on M. polymorpha. The 35S promoter from cauliflower mosaic virus and endogenous promoters for constitutive and heat-inducible expression were used to create these vectors. The reporters and tags used were Citrine, 3×Citrine, Citrine-NLS, TagRFP, tdTomato, tdTomato-NLS, GR, SRDX, SRDX-GR, GUS, ELuc(PEST), and 3×FLAG. These vectors, designated as the pMpGWB series, will facilitate molecular genetic analyses of the emerging model plant M. polymorpha.

Homologous recombination-mediated gene targeting in the liverwort Marchantia polymorpha L.

The liverwort Marchantia polymorpha is an emerging model organism on account of its ideal characteristics for molecular genetics in addition to occupying a crucial position in the evolution of land plants. Here we describe a method for gene targeting by applying a positive/negative selection system for reduction of non-homologous random integration to an efficient Agrobacterium-mediated transformation system using M. polymorpha sporelings. The targeting efficiency was evaluated by knocking out the NOP1 gene, which impaired air-chamber formation. Homologous recombination was observed in about 2% of the thalli that passed the positive/negative selection. With the advantage of utilizing the haploid gametophytic generation, this strategy should facilitate further molecular genetic analysis of M. polymorpha, in which many of the mechanisms found in land plants are conserved, yet in a less complex form.