Sense of agency and its disturbances: A systematic review targeting the intentional binding effect in neuropsychiatric disorders.

Sense of agency (SoA) indicates a person's ability to perceive her/his own motor acts as actually being her/his and, through them, to exert control over the course of external events. Disruptions in SoA may profoundly affect the individual's functioning, as observed in several neuropsychiatric disorders. This is the first article to systematically review studies that investigated intentional binding (IB), a quantitative proxy for SoA measurement, in neurological and psychiatric patients. Eligible were studies of IB involving patients with neurological and/or psychiatric disorders. We included 15 studies involving 692 individuals. Risk of bias was low throughout studies. Abnormally increased action-outcome binding was found in schizophrenia and in patients with Parkinson's disease taking dopaminergic medications or reporting impulsive-compulsive behaviors. A decreased IB effect was observed in Tourette's disorder and functional movement disorders, whereas increased action-outcome binding was found in patients with the cortico-basal syndrome. The extent of IB deviation from healthy control values correlated with the severity of symptoms in several disorders. Inconsistent effects were found for autism spectrum disorders, anorexia nervosa, and borderline personality disorder. Findings pave the way for treatments specifically targeting SoA in neuropsychiatric disorders where IB is altered.

Precision neuroimaging biomarkers for bipolar disorder.

Bipolar disorder (BD) is a severe mental illness associated with alterations in brain organization. Neuroimaging studies have generated a large body of knowledge regarding brain morphological and functional abnormalities in BD. Current advances in the field have focussed on the need for more precise neuroimaging biomarkers. Here we present a selective overview of precision neuroimaging biomarkers for BD, focussing on personalized metrics and novel neuroimaging methods aiming to provide mechanistic insights into the brain alterations associated with BD. The evidence presented covers (a) machine learning techniques applied to neuroimaging data to differentiate patients with BD from healthy individuals or other clinical groups; (b) the 'brain-age-gap-estimation (brainAGE), which is an individualized measure of brain health; (c) diffusional kurtosis imaging (DKI), neurite orientation dispersion and density imaging (NODDI) and Positron Emission Tomography (PET) techniques that open new opportunities to measure microstructural changes in neurite/synaptic integrity and function.

Anomalous self-experience, body image disturbance, and eating disorder symptomatology in first-onset anorexia nervosa.

PURPOSE: Anorexia nervosa-restrictive subtype (AN-R) is a life-threatening disorder relying on behavioural abnormalities, such as excessive food restriction or exercise. Such abnormalities may be secondary to an "objectified" attitude toward body image and self. This is the first study exploring the impact of anomalous self-experience (ASEs) on abnormal body image attitude and eating disorder (ED) symptomatology in individuals with AN-R at onset. METHODS: We recruited Italian female participants, 40 with AN-R (mean age 18.3 ± 2.3) and 45 age and educational level-matched healthy controls (HCs) (mean age 18.2 ± 2.6). ASEs, body image attitude, and ED symptom severity were assessed through the examination of anomalous self-experience (EASE), the body uneasiness test (BUT), and the eating disorder examination questionnaire (EDE-Q), respectively. We conducted multivariate analysis of variance to investigate distribution patterns of variables of interest, and mediation analysis to test the effect of ASEs and body image on ED symptomatology. RESULTS: Individuals with AN-R scored higher than HCs on the EASE (p < .0001). A direct effect of ASEs on ED severity (p = 0.009; bootstrapped LLCI = 0.067, ULCI = 0.240) was found in AN-R. After modelling the effect of abnormal body image attitude, the relationship between EASE total score and ED symptomatology was significantly mediated by BUT (p = 0.002; bootstrapped LLCI = 0.001, ULCI = 0.172). CONCLUSION: Although the exact pathways linking AN-R to self-disorder remain to be identified, a broader exploration of transdiagnostic features in AN, including explorations of different dimensions of self-experience and intersubjectivity, may shed further light on the clinical phenomenology of the disorder. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III, case-control analytic study.

Emotional dysregulation mediates the impact of childhood trauma on psychological distress: First Italian data during the early phase of COVID-19 outbreak.

BACKGROUND: The coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic represents an unprecedented traumatic stressor to mental health. Psychological distress is considered a reliable proxy for psychopathology and can be negatively influenced by childhood trauma through sensitization effects. Emotion dysregulation has been proposed as a potential mediator of this mechanism. We aimed to test this hypothesis in a national Italian sample assessed in the early phase of the coronavirus disease 2019 outbreak. METHODS: We investigated the relationship between psychological distress and childhood trauma in 500 healthy participants assessed through a survey-based study, after the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic lockdown in Italy. Levels of psychological distress and history of childhood trauma were obtained using the Kessler-10 (K10) and the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, respectively. We used bootstrapped mediation analysis to test the mediator role of emotional dysregulation, measured through the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale, on the effect of childhood trauma on psychological distress. RESULTS: In total, 190 (38%) reported psychological distress related to the coronavirus disease 2019 outbreak. Individuals with psychological distress experienced more childhood trauma, specifically emotional abuse (F = 23.51, df = 1, p < 0.001) and neglect (F = 10.98, df = 1, p = 0.001). After modelling the effect of emotional dysregulation, the impact of childhood trauma on coronavirus disease 2019-related psychological distress resulted in indirect effects and mediated by deficits in emotion regulation mechanisms (bootstrapped lower level of confidence interval = 0.345, upper level of confidence interval = 0.598). CONCLUSION: Childhood trauma is associated with increased vulnerability to the stressful effect of the coronavirus disease 2019 outbreak. Our data suggest that emotional dysregulation may represent a dimension mediating the impact of childhood trauma on coronavirus disease 2019-related psychological distress and may be considered as specific target for interventions aiming at empowering resilience.

Affective temperament, attachment style, and the psychological impact of the COVID-19 outbreak: an early report on the Italian general population.

The outbreak of COVID-19 is severely affecting mental health worldwide, although individual response may vary. This study aims to investigate the psychological distress perceived by the Italian general population during the early phase of the COVID-19 pandemic, and to analyze affective temperament and adult attachment styles as potential mediators. Through an online survey, we collected sociodemographic and lockdown-related information and evaluated distress, temperament, and attachment using the Kessler 10 Psychological Distress Scale (K10), the Temperament Evaluation of Memphis, Pisa, Paris and San Diego-Autoquestionnaire short version (TEMPS-A) and the Attachment Style Questionnaire (ASQ). In our sample (n = 500), 62% of the individuals reported no likelihood of psychological distress, whereas 19.4% and 18.6% displayed mild and moderate-to-severe likelihood. Cyclothymic (OR: 1.24; p < 0.001), depressive (OR: 1.52; p < 0.001) and anxious (OR: 1.58; p = 0.002) temperaments, and the ASQ "Need for approval" (OR: 1.08; p = 0.01) were risk factors for moderate-to-severe psychological distress compared to no distress, while the ASQ "Confidence" (OR: 0.89; p = 0.002) and "Discomfort with closeness" were protective (OR: 0.92; p = 0.001). Cyclothymic (OR: 1.17; p = 0.008) and depressive (OR: 1.32; p = 0.003) temperaments resulted as risk factors in subjects with moderate-to-severe psychological distress compared to mild distress, while the ASQ "Confidence" (OR: 0.92; p = 0.039) and "Discomfort with closeness" (OR: 0.94; p = 0.023) were protective. Our data indicated that a relevant rate of individuals may have experienced psychological distress following the COVID-19 outbreak. Specific affective temperament and attachment features predict the extent of mental health burden. To the best of our knowledge, these are the first data available on the psychological impact of the early phase of the COVID-19 pandemic on a sizeable sample of the Italian population. Moreover, our study is the first to investigate temperament and attachment characteristics in the psychological response to the ongoing pandemic. Our results provide further insight into developing targeted intervention strategies.

Predominant polarity and hippocampal subfield volumes in Bipolar disorders.

OBJECTIVES: Predominant polarity (PP) is a proposed course specifier for bipolar disorders (BD) based on patient lifetime mood episodes. Hippocampal subfield volumetric changes have been proposed as a neurobiological marker for BD and could be influenced by mood episodes. Our study aimed to test the hypothesis that patients with BD differ in hippocampal subfield volumes according to their PP. METHODS: We assessed 172 outpatients, diagnosed with BD according to DSM-IV-TR criteria, and 150 healthy control (HC) participants. High-resolution magnetic resonance imaging was performed on all subjects and volumes of all hippocampal subfields were measured using FreeSurfer. RESULTS: Patients with depressive PP (BD-DP) and with uncertain PP (BD-UP) but not with manic/hypomanic PP (BD-MP) showed a global reduction on all hippocampal subfield volumes with respect to HCs. When directly compared, BD-DP presented with smaller bilateral presubiculum/subiculum volumes than BD-MP. CONCLUSIONS: Results support the potential utility of PP not only as a clinical but also as a neurobiological specifier of BD.

Amygdala and hippocampus volumes are differently affected by childhood trauma in patients with bipolar disorders and healthy controls.

OBJECTIVES: Volumetric studies on deep gray matter structures in bipolar disorder (BP) have reported contrasting results. Childhood trauma, a relevant environmental stressor for BP, could account for the variability of the results, modulating differences in the amygdala and hippocampus in patients with BP compared with healthy controls (HC). Our study aimed to test this hypothesis. METHODS: We assessed 105 outpatients, diagnosed with bipolar disorder type I (BP-I) or bipolar disorder type II (BP-II) according to DSM-IV-TR criteria, and 113 HC subjects. History of childhood trauma was obtained using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ). High-resolution magnetic resonance imaging was performed on all subjects and volumes of the amygdala, hippocampus, nucleus accumbens, caudate, pallidum, putamen, and thalamus were measured using FreeSurfer. RESULTS: Patients with BP showed a global reduction of deep gray matter volumes compared to HCs. However, childhood trauma modulated the impact of the diagnosis specifically on the amygdala and hippocampus. Childhood trauma was associated with bilateral decreased volumes in HCs and increased volumes in patients with BP. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that childhood trauma may have a different effect in health and disease on volumes of gray matter in the amygdala and hippocampus, which are brain areas specifically involved in response to stress and emotion processing.

Paradoxical sleep deprivation in rats causes a selective reduction in the expression of type-2 metabotropic glutamate receptors in the hippocampus.

Paradoxical sleep deprivation in rats is considered as an experimental animal model of mania endowed with face, construct, and pharmacological validity. We induced paradoxical sleep deprivation by placing rats onto a small platform surrounded by water. This procedure caused the animal to fall in the water at the onset of REM phase of sleep. Control rats were either placed onto a larger platform (which allowed them to sleep) or maintained in their home cage. Sleep deprived rats showed a substantial reduction in type-2 metabotropic glutamate (mGlu2) receptors mRNA and protein levels in the hippocampus, but not in the prefrontal cortex or corpus striatum, as compared to both groups of control rats. No changes in the expression of mGlu3 receptor mRNA levels or mGlu1α and mGlu5 receptor protein levels were found with exception of an increase in mGlu1α receptor levels in the striatum of SD rats. Moving from these findings we treated SD and control rats with the selective mGlu2 receptor enhancer, BINA (30mg/kg, i.p.). SD rats were also treated with sodium valproate (300mg/kg, i.p.) as an active comparator. Both BINA and sodium valproate were effective in reversing the manic-like phenotype evaluated in an open field arena in SD rats. BINA treatment had no effect on motor activity in control rats, suggesting that our findings were not biased by a non-specific motor-lowering activity of BINA. These findings suggest that changes in the expression of mGlu2 receptors may be associated with the enhanced motor activity observed with mania.

Gray and white matter trajectories in patients with bipolar disorder.

OBJECTIVES: Findings on brain structural abnormalities in patients with bipolar disorder (BP) are inconsistent and little is known about age-related evolution of these changes. We employed a cross-sectional, case-control study to compare structural age-related brain trajectories in patients with BP and healthy control subjects (HC) over a period of approximately 50 years. The primary aim was to understand whether white (WM) and gray matter (GM) abnormalities are present from the beginning of the illness and how they change over time. METHODS: Seventy-eight patients with BP and 78 HC matched for age, gender, and educational level underwent a high-resolution structural magnetic resonance imaging protocol. A voxel-based morphometry (VBM) analysis was used to capture GM and WM differences between subjects with BP and HC. Factorial analysis of covariance was used to compare brain volume alterations at different ages between the groups. RESULTS: We found an age-related atrophy in GM and WM volumes both in patients with BP and HC. A main effect of diagnosis emerged in the posterior cingulate cortex bilaterally, in the right thalamus, in the cerebellum bilaterally, and in the left posterior limb of the internal capsule. No interaction between diagnosis and age emerged, indicating that the volumes of these areas were permanently reduced in subjects with BP throughout the entire age range under investigation. CONCLUSIONS: Brain alterations in patients with BP are present from the beginning of the illness and remain stable over time. All the affected areas are involved in mood and psychomotor control process. This suggests a possible neurodevelopmental involvement in the mechanism of BP.

Are 5-HT3 antagonists effective in obsessive-compulsive disorder? A systematic review of literature.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this literature database search-based review was to critically consider and evaluate the findings of literature focusing on efficacy and safety of 5-HT3 antagonists in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), so as to test whether preclinical data match clinical therapeutic trials. DESIGN: The PubMed database has been searched for papers on 5-HT3 antagonists and OCD in humans and for animal models of OCD and 5-HT3 receptors. RESULTS: Of the clinically tested 5-HT3 receptor antagonists, ondansetron has been used to treat OCD in five therapeutic studies, whereas granisetron only in one recent trial. Both showed some efficacy in open studies and superiority to placebo in double-blind studies, along with fair safety. No animal OCD model directly implicated 5-HT3 receptors. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, results indicate some utility, but the available literature is too scanty to allow for valid conclusions to be drawn. The mismatch between animal models of obsessive-compulsive disorder and clinical data with 5-HT3 antagonists needs more clinical data to ensure that it is not an artefact.

Type of cycle, temperament and childhood trauma are associated with lithium response in patients with bipolar disorders.

BACKGROUND: Lithium stands as the gold standard in treating bipolar disorders (BD). Despite numerous clinical factors being associated with a favorable response to lithium, comprehensive studies examining the collective influence of clinical variables alongside psychopathological dimensions are lacking. Our study aims to enhance comprehension of lithium response in individuals with BD by integrating clinical variables with psychopathological traits and early adverse events. METHODS: We assessed 201 patients with BD for clinical characteristics, childhood trauma, temperament traits, impulsivity, and aggression. Lithium response was evaluated using the gold standard Alda scale, and predictors of lithium response were estimated through a multivariate model. RESULTS: On the total sample, 61 (30.3%) patients were lithium responders according to the Alda scale. Comparatively, lithium responders, in contrast to non-responders, demonstrated a higher prevalence of the mania-depression-interval (MDI) cycle, a more frequent diagnosis of BD type I, and reported an earlier age of onset. They also exhibited less lifetime substance abuse, emotional, physical, and sexual abuse, while scoring higher on hyperthymic and irritable temperament scales. In multivariate analyses, only the MDI cycle (OR,3.47; 95%CI,1.61-7.50) hyperthymic (OR,1.20; 95%CI,1.02-1.41) and irritable temperament (OR,1.28; 95%CI,1.08-1.52) persisted as significant predictors of a positive response to lithium treatment, while emotional (OR,0.87; 95%CI,0.76-0.98) and physical abuse (OR,0.83; 95%CI,0.70-0.98) were predictors of non-response. CONCLUSIONS: In evaluating lithium response in BD, our study highlights the importance of considering clinical variables alongside temperament and childhood adversities. The assessment of hyperthymic and irritable temperament, emotional and physical abuse together with the type of cycle is of particular importance. Furthermore, our findings underscore the significance of systematically assessing the type of cycle in patients with BD through the use of life charts.

Childhood sexual abuse and suicide attempts in patients with substance use disorders: The mediating role of emotion dysregulation.

BACKGROUND: Suicide attempts (SA) are a public health concern because of increasing prevalence and clinical implications. Childhood trauma (CT) and emotion dysregulation (ED) have been proposed as predictors of SA, but few data are available in patients with Substance Use Disorder (SUD). OBJECTIVE: Our study aims to investigate the association of sociodemographic/clinical variables, CT typologies, and ED features with SA in SUD patients. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: Subjects with SUD were screened in an outpatient setting. The final sample consisted of 226 patients, subdivided according to the presence of lifetime SA (SUD, n = 163 vs. SUD-SA, n = 63). METHODS: Participants were compared for sociodemographic and clinical information. CT and ED were assessed through the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire - Short Form (CTQ-SF) and the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS), respectively. We performed a mediation analysis to test the effect of CT and ED on SA. RESULTS: Patients with a history of SA (27.9 %) displayed more psychiatric comorbidities (p = 0.002) and hospitalizations (p < 0.001), higher scores at CTQ-SF sexual abuse (p < 0.001) and DERS 'impulse' (p = 0.002), 'goals', 'non-acceptance', 'strategies' (p < 0.001) subscales. The relationship between CTQ-SF sexual abuse and SA was significantly mediated by DERS 'strategies' (p = 0.04; bootstrapped 95 % LLCI-ULCI = 0.004-0.024). CONCLUSIONS: CT and different dimensions of ED were associated with SA in SUD patients. In our sample, the effects of childhood sexual abuse on SA were mediated by limited access to emotion regulation strategies. SUD patients are burdened with higher all-cause mortality, and CT and lifetime SA can worsen clinical outcomes. Clarifying the reciprocal interactions of psychopathological dimensions may help deliver targeted interventions and reduce suicide risk in specific populations.

Childhood Trauma and Self-harm in Youths with Bipolar Disorders.

BACKGROUND: Bipolar disorders (BD) in youth are associated with a high risk of self-harm behaviors. Childhood trauma (CT) is a relevant environmental stressor that is related to both BD diagnosis and self-harm in adulthood. It is not yet established whether CT may impact self-harm risk in youth. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the distribution patterns of CT in youth BD with and without self-harm. METHODS: We assessed 273 participants (aged 13-25 years), 96 youths with BD according to DSM-5 criteria and 177 healthy controls (HC). History of CT was obtained using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ). The association between CT and self-harm was tested using multivariate statistical models. RESULTS: Over 45% of participants with BD reported lifetime self-harm. The BD Self-harm group reported more emotional abuse, emotional neglect, sexual abuse, and physical abuse than HC. The BD No-Self-harm group reported more emotional abuse than HC. The BD Self-harm group reported more emotional abuse and neglect than the BD No-Self-harm group. The BD Self-harm group also reported separated parents, hospitalizations, smoking, use of antiepileptics, antipsychotics and lithium. Emotional abuse was an independent predictor of self-harm in youths with BD. CONCLUSION: Findings support the importance of assessing CT, in particular emotional abuse, in youth with BD at risk for self-harm.

Psychological factors and barriers to donating and receiving milk from human milk banks: A review.

Human milk banks (HMBs), established in the early 20th century, aimed to provide safe breast milk for infants with challenges obtaining it. The spread of infections since the 1980s resulted in strict regulations and screening in HMBs, to ensure the safety of donated milk. Several social and personal factors discourage mothers from practicing breastfeeding, making donated milk a viable alternative because of its protective and immunity-enhancing properties. However, psychological barriers can affect the decision to donate or receive donated milk. To identify psychological factors related to donating and receiving human milk from HMBs, we searched PubMed to identify studies reporting psychological factors in donating and receiving milk and excluding studies not reporting psychological factors. The search identified 28 articles meeting the inclusion criteria. Eligible studies from various countries spanned from 1995 to 2023 and focused on psychological factors influencing milk donation and receiving. Most studies were descriptive-qualitative. Factors facilitating or hindering milk donation and reception included perceptions, psychological aspects, and previous experiences. Positive factors for donors included the desire to help other mothers, support from health care professionals, and personal well-being. Negative factors included breast milk exclusivity and discomfort caused by health checks. For recipients, awareness of donated milk benefits was a positive factor, whereas fear regarding safety was negative. The altruistic motivation to help other mothers drove many women to donate. Proper awareness and support from health care professionals and families can help women understand the value of milk donation and support their personal and identity reintegration, especially in cases of the loss of a child.

Effect of Anti-Interleukin-6 Agents on Psychopathology in a Sample of Patients with Post-COVID-19 Syndrome: An Observational Study.

Interleukin 6 (IL-6) receptor inhibitors tocilizumab and sarilumab have recently been approved for severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). They also affect mood, even though their effect on the post-COVID-19 syndrome-related psychopathology still has to be investigated. The aim of this study was to investigate their effect on psychopathology in a sample of patients with post-COVID-19 syndrome. We included 246 patients (34% female, 66% male) aged 18-75 years who had been hospitalized for COVID. Patients were split into those who received anti-IL-6 receptor agents (Anti-IL-6-R, N = 88) and those who did not (Ctrl, N = 158). The former group was further split into those receiving tocilizumab (TOC, N = 67) and those receiving sarilumab (SAR, N = 21). Groups were compared based on clinical characteristics before and during COVID-19 as well as on physical and psychiatric symptoms after COVID-19. Ctrl had less psychiatric and physical symptoms during hospitalization and more post-COVID-19 diarrhea, headache, cough, and dyspnea upon exertion than those receiving IL-6-receptor inhibitors. Ctrl also showed greater difficulties in emotion regulation. These differences were driven by TOC vs. Ctrl, whereas differences between SAR and Ctrl or TOC did not reach significance. IL-6 receptor inhibitors are related to a lower post-COVID-19 illness burden and seem to be effective in emotion regulation. Further research is needed to confirm these findings.

Acylcarnitines metabolism in depression: association with diagnostic status, depression severity and symptom profile in the NESDA cohort.

Background: Acylcarnitines (ACs) are involved in bioenergetics processes that may play a role in the pathophysiology of depression. Studies linking AC levels to depression are few and provide mixed findings. We examined the association of circulating ACs levels with Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) diagnosis, overall depression severity and specific symptom profiles. Methods: The sample from the Netherlands Study of Depression and Anxiety included participants with current (n=1035) or remitted (n=739) MDD and healthy controls (n=800). Plasma levels of four ACs (short-chain: acetylcarnitine C2 and propionylcarnitine C3; medium-chain: octanoylcarnitine C8 and decanoylcarnitine C10) were measured. Overall depression severity as well as atypical/energy-related (AES), anhedonic and melancholic symptom profiles were derived from the Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology. Results: As compared to healthy controls, subjects with current or remitted MDD presented similarly lower mean C2 levels (Cohen's d=0.2, p≤1e-4). Higher overall depression severity was significantly associated with higher C3 levels (ß=0.06, SE=0.02, p=1.21e-3). No associations were found for C8 and C10. Focusing on symptom profiles, only higher AES scores were linked to lower C2 (ß=-0.05, SE=0.02, p=1.85e-2) and higher C3 (ß=0.08, SE=0.02, p=3.41e-5) levels. Results were confirmed in analyses pooling data with an additional internal replication sample from the same subjects measured at 6-year follow-up (totaling 4195 observations). Conclusions: Small alterations in levels of short-chain acylcarnitine levels were related to the presence and severity of depression, especially for symptoms reflecting altered energy homeostasis. Cellular metabolic dysfunctions may represent a key pathway in depression pathophysiology potentially accessible through AC metabolism.

Is Antipsychotic Drug Use During Pregnancy Associated with Increased Malformation Rates and Worsening of Maternal and Infant Outcomes? A Systematic Review.

There is much debate about continuing antipsychotic medication in patients who need it when they become pregnant because benefits must be weighed against potential teratogenic and malformation effects related to antipsychotics themselves. To address this, we conducted a systematic review on the PubMed, PsycINFO and CINHAL databases and the ClinicalTrials.gov register using the following strategy: (toxicity OR teratogenicity OR malformation* OR "birth defect*" OR "congenital abnormality" OR "congenital abnormalities" OR "brain changes" OR "behavioral abnormalities" OR "behavioral abnormalities") AND antipsychotic* AND (pregnancy OR pregnant OR lactation OR delivery OR prenatal OR perinatal OR post-natal OR puerperium) on September 27, 2023. We found 38 studies to be eligible. The oldest was published in 1976, while most articles were recent. Most studies concluded that the antipsychotics, especially the second-generation antipsychotics, were devoid of teratogenic potential, while few studies were inconclusive and recommended replication. Most authoritative articles were from the Boston area, where large databases were implemented to study the malformation potential of psychiatric drugs. Other reliable databases are from Northern European registers. Overall conclusions are that antipsychotics are no more related to malformations than the disorders themselves; most studies recommend that there are no reasons to discontinue antipsychotic medications in pregnancy.

Neurodevelopment in schizophrenia: the role of the wnt pathways.

OBJECTIVES: To review the role of Wnt pathways in the neurodevelopment of schizophrenia. METHODS: SYSTEMATIC PUBMED SEARCH, USING AS KEYWORDS ALL THE TERMS RELATED TO THE WNT PATHWAYS AND CROSSING THEM WITH EACH OF THE FOLLOWING AREAS: normal neurodevelopment and physiology, neurodevelopmental theory of schizophrenia, schizophrenia, and antipsychotic drug action. RESULTS: Neurodevelopmental, behavioural, genetic, and psychopharmacological data point to the possible involvement of Wnt systems, especially the canonical pathway, in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and in the mechanism of antipsychotic drug action. The molecules most consistently found to be associated with abnormalities or in antipsychotic drug action are Akt1, glycogen synthase kinase3beta, and beta-catenin. However, the extent to which they contribute to the pathophysiology of schizophrenia or to antipsychotic action remains to be established. CONCLUSIONS: The study of the involvement of Wnt pathway abnormalities in schizophrenia may help in understanding this multifaceted clinical entity; the development of Wnt-related pharmacological targets must await the collection of more data.