Epidemiology, Molecular Pathogenesis, Immuno-Pathogenesis, Immune Escape Mechanisms and Vaccine Evaluation for HPV-Associated Carcinogenesis.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is implicated in over 90% of cervical cancer cases, with factors like regional variability, HPV genotype, the population studied, HPV vaccination status, and anatomical sample collection location influencing the prevalence and pathology of HPV-induced cancer. HPV-16 and -18 are mainly responsible for the progression of several cancers, including cervix, anus, vagina, penis, vulva, and oropharynx. The oncogenic ability of HPV is not only sufficient for the progression of malignancy, but also for other tumor-generating steps required for the production of invasive cancer, such as coinfection with other viruses, lifestyle factors such as high parity, smoking, tobacco chewing, use of contraceptives for a long time, and immune responses such as stimulation of chronic stromal inflammation and immune deviation in the tumor microenvironment. Viral evasion from immunosurveillance also supports viral persistence, and virus-like particle-based prophylactic vaccines have been licensed, which are effective against high-risk HPV types. In addition, vaccination awareness programs and preventive strategies could help reduce the rate and incidence of HPV infection. In this review, we emphasize HPV infection and its role in cancer progression, molecular and immunopathogenesis, host immune response, immune evasion by HPV, vaccination, and preventive schemes battling HPV infection and HPV-related cancers.

Alleviation of metabolic abnormalities induced by excessive fructose administration in Wistar rats by Spirulina maxima.

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVES: Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder characterized by hyperglycaemia. Several natural products have been isolated and identified to restore the complications of diabetes. Spirulina maxima is naturally occurring fresh water cyanobacterium, enriched with proteins and essential nutrients. The aim of the study was to determine whether S. maxima could serve as a therapeutic agent to correct metabolic abnormalities induced by excessive fructose administration in Wistar rats. METHODS: Oral administration of 10 per cent fructose solution to Wistar rats (n = 5 in each group) for 30 days resulted in hyperglycaemia and hyperlipidaemia. Aqueous suspension of S. maxima (5 or 10%) was also administered orally once daily for 30 days. The therapeutic potential of the preparation with reference to metformin (500 mg/kg) was assessed by monitoring various biochemical parameters at 10 day intervals during the course of therapy and at the end of 30 days S. maxima administration. RESULTS: Significant (P<0.001) reductions in blood glucose, lipid profile (triglycerides, cholesterol and LDL, VLDL) and liver function markers (SGPT and SGOT) were recorded along with elevated level of HDL-C at the end of 30 days therapy of 5 or 10 per cent S. maxima aquous extract. Co-administration of S. maxima extract (5 or 10% aqueous) with 10 per cent fructose solution offered a significant protection against fructose induced metabolic abnormalities in Wistar rats. INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSIONS: The present findings showed that S. maxima exhibited anti-hyperglycaemic, anti-hyperlipidaemic and hepatoprotective activity in rats fed with fructose. Further studies are needed to understand the mechanisms.

Spirulina in health care management.

Spirulina is a photosynthetic, filamentous, spiral-shaped and multicellular edible microbe. It is the nature's richest and most complete source of nutrition. Spirulina has a unique blend of nutrients that no single source can offer. The alga contains a wide spectrum of prophylactic and therapeutic nutrients that include B-complex vitamins, minerals, proteins, gamma-linolenic acid and the super anti-oxidants such as beta-carotene, vitamin E, trace elements and a number of unexplored bioactive compounds. Because of its apparent ability to stimulate whole human physiology, Spirulina exhibits therapeutic functions such as antioxidant, anti-bacterial, antiviral, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic and anti-diabetic and plethora of beneficial functions. Spirulina consumption appears to promote the growth of intestinal micro flora as well. The review discusses the potential of Spirulina in health care management.