The myeloid transcription factor KLF2 regulates the host response to polymicrobial infection and endotoxic shock.

Precise control of myeloid cell activation is required for optimal host defense. However, this activation process must be under exquisite control to prevent uncontrolled inflammation. Herein, we identify the Kruppel-like transcription factor 2 (KLF2) as a potent regulator of myeloid cell activation in vivo. Exposure of myeloid cells to hypoxia and/or bacterial products reduced KLF2 expression while inducing hypoxia inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α), findings that were recapitulated in human septic patients. Myeloid KLF2 was found to be a potent inhibitor of nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB)-dependent HIF-1α transcription and, consequently, a critical determinant of outcome in models of polymicrobial infection and endotoxemia. Collectively, these observations identify KLF2 as a tonic repressor of myeloid cell activation in vivo and an essential regulator of the innate immune system.

Circadian rhythms govern cardiac repolarization and arrhythmogenesis.

Sudden cardiac death exhibits diurnal variation in both acquired and hereditary forms of heart disease, but the molecular basis of this variation is unknown. A common mechanism that underlies susceptibility to ventricular arrhythmias is abnormalities in the duration (for example, short or long QT syndromes and heart failure) or pattern (for example, Brugada's syndrome) of myocardial repolarization. Here we provide molecular evidence that links circadian rhythms to vulnerability in ventricular arrhythmias in mice. Specifically, we show that cardiac ion-channel expression and QT-interval duration (an index of myocardial repolarization) exhibit endogenous circadian rhythmicity under the control of a clock-dependent oscillator, krüppel-like factor 15 (Klf15). Klf15 transcriptionally controls rhythmic expression of Kv channel-interacting protein 2 (KChIP2), a critical subunit required for generating the transient outward potassium current. Deficiency or excess of Klf15 causes loss of rhythmic QT variation, abnormal repolarization and enhanced susceptibility to ventricular arrhythmias. These findings identify circadian transcription of ion channels as a mechanism for cardiac arrhythmogenesis.

BRG1 and BRM function antagonistically with c-MYC in adult cardiomyocytes to regulate conduction and contractility.

RATIONALE: The contractile dysfunction that underlies heart failure involves perturbations in multiple biological processes ranging from metabolism to electrophysiology. Yet the epigenetic mechanisms that are altered in this disease state have not been elucidated. SWI/SNF chromatin-remodeling complexes are plausible candidates based on mouse knockout studies demonstrating a combined requirement for the BRG1 and BRM catalytic subunits in adult cardiomyocytes. Brg1/Brm double mutants exhibit metabolic and mitochondrial defects and are not viable although their cause of death has not been ascertained. OBJECTIVE: To determine the cause of death of Brg1/Brm double-mutant mice, to test the hypothesis that BRG1 and BRM are required for cardiac contractility, and to identify relevant downstream target genes. METHODS AND RESULTS: A tamoxifen-inducible gene-targeting strategy utilizing αMHC-Cre-ERT was implemented to delete both SWI/SNF catalytic subunits in adult cardiomyocytes. Brg1/Brm double-mutant mice were monitored by echocardiography and electrocardiography, and they underwent rapidly progressive ventricular dysfunction including conduction defects and arrhythmias that culminated in heart failure and death within 3weeks. Mechanistically, BRG1/BRM repressed c-Myc expression, and enforced expression of a DOX-inducible c-MYC trangene in mouse cardiomyocytes phenocopied the ventricular conduction defects observed in Brg1/Brm double mutants. BRG1/BRM and c-MYC had opposite effects on the expression of cardiac conduction genes, and the directionality was consistent with their respective loss- and gain-of-function phenotypes. To support the clinical relevance of this mechanism, BRG1/BRM occupancy was diminished at the same target genes in human heart failure cases compared to controls, and this correlated with increased c-MYC expression and decreased CX43 and SCN5A expression. CONCLUSION: BRG1/BRM and c-MYC have an antagonistic relationship regulating the expression of cardiac conduction genes that maintain contractility, which is reminiscent of their antagonistic roles as a tumor suppressor and oncogene in cancer.

Catabolic Defect of Branched-Chain Amino Acids Promotes Heart Failure.

BACKGROUND: Although metabolic reprogramming is critical in the pathogenesis of heart failure, studies to date have focused principally on fatty acid and glucose metabolism. Contribution of amino acid metabolic regulation in the disease remains understudied. METHODS AND RESULTS: Transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses were performed in mouse failing heart induced by pressure overload. Suppression of branched-chain amino acid (BCAA) catabolic gene expression along with concomitant tissue accumulation of branched-chain α-keto acids was identified as a significant signature of metabolic reprogramming in mouse failing hearts and validated to be shared in human cardiomyopathy hearts. Molecular and genetic evidence identified the transcription factor Krüppel-like factor 15 as a key upstream regulator of the BCAA catabolic regulation in the heart. Studies using a genetic mouse model revealed that BCAA catabolic defect promoted heart failure associated with induced oxidative stress and metabolic disturbance in response to mechanical overload. Mechanistically, elevated branched-chain α-keto acids directly suppressed respiration and induced superoxide production in isolated mitochondria. Finally, pharmacological enhancement of branched-chain α-keto acid dehydrogenase activity significantly blunted cardiac dysfunction after pressure overload. CONCLUSIONS: BCAA catabolic defect is a metabolic hallmark of failing heart resulting from Krüppel-like factor 15-mediated transcriptional reprogramming. BCAA catabolic defect imposes a previously unappreciated significant contribution to heart failure.

Kruppel-like factor 15 regulates skeletal muscle lipid flux and exercise adaptation.

The ability of skeletal muscle to enhance lipid utilization during exercise is a form of metabolic plasticity essential for survival. Conversely, metabolic inflexibility in muscle can cause organ dysfunction and disease. Although the transcription factor Kruppel-like factor 15 (KLF15) is an important regulator of glucose and amino acid metabolism, its endogenous role in lipid homeostasis and muscle physiology is unknown. Here we demonstrate that KLF15 is essential for skeletal muscle lipid utilization and physiologic performance. KLF15 directly regulates a broad transcriptional program spanning all major segments of the lipid-flux pathway in muscle. Consequently, Klf15-deficient mice have abnormal lipid and energy flux, excessive reliance on carbohydrate fuels, exaggerated muscle fatigue, and impaired endurance exercise capacity. Elucidation of this heretofore unrecognized role for KLF15 now implicates this factor as a central component of the transcriptional circuitry that coordinates physiologic flux of all three basic cellular nutrients: glucose, amino acids, and lipids.

Ionic bases for electrical remodeling of the canine cardiac ventricle.

Emerging evidence suggests that ventricular electrical remodeling (VER) is triggered by regional myocardial strain via mechanoelectrical feedback mechanisms; however, the ionic mechanisms underlying strain-induced VER are poorly understood. To determine its ionic basis, VER induced by altered electrical activation in dogs undergoing left ventricular pacing (n = 6) were compared with unpaced controls (n = 4). Action potential (AP) durations (APDs), ionic currents, and Ca(2+) transients were measured from canine epicardial myocytes isolated from early-activated (low strain) and late-activated (high strain) left ventricular regions. VER in the early-activated region was characterized by minimal APD prolongation, but marked attenuation of the AP phase 1 notch attributed to reduced transient outward K(+) current. In contrast, VER in the late-activated region was characterized by significant APD prolongation. Despite marked APD prolongation, there was surprisingly minimal change in ion channel densities but a twofold increase in diastolic Ca(2+). Computer simulations demonstrated that changes in sarcolemmal ion channel density could only account for attenuation of the AP notch observed in the early-activated region but failed to account for APD remodeling in the late-activated region. Furthermore, these simulations identified that cytosolic Ca(2+) accounted for APD prolongation in the late-activated region by enhancing forward-mode Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger activity, corroborated by increased Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger protein expression. Finally, assessment of skinned fibers after VER identified altered myofilament Ca(2+) sensitivity in late-activated regions to be associated with increased diastolic levels of Ca(2+). In conclusion, we identified two distinct ionic mechanisms that underlie VER: 1) strain-independent changes in early-activated regions due to remodeling of sarcolemmal ion channels with no changes in Ca(2+) handling and 2) a novel and unexpected mechanism for strain-induced VER in late-activated regions in the canine arising from remodeling of sarcomeric Ca(2+) handling rather than sarcolemmal ion channels.

Spironolactone improves the arrhythmogenic substrate in heart failure by preventing ventricular electrical activation delays associated with myocardial interstitial fibrosis and inflammation.

INTRODUCTION: Mineralocorticoid receptor antagonism reduces sudden cardiac death in heart failure, but the underlying mechanism is unclear. Our previous studies indicate that treatment with a mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist prevents adverse ventricular electrophysiological remodeling and reduces ventricular tachyarrhythmia inducibility in the rapid ventricular pacing-induced heart failure model. This study's aim was to determine whether chronic spironolactone treatment prevents formation of local electrical activation delays in the cardiomyopathic ventricle by attenuating inflammatory pathways and myocardial fibrosis. METHODS AND RESULTS: Dogs subjected to rapid ventricular pacing at 220 bpm for 5 weeks in the absence or presence of spironolactone treatment were assessed by echocardiography, electrophysiology study, ventricular fibrosis measurements and inflammatory cytokine mRNA expression analysis. Spironolactone failed to prevent LV systolic dysfunction or chamber enlargement in dogs that underwent rapid ventricular pacing. Spironolactone prevented ventricular electrogram widening after premature stimulation at short coupling intervals, electrogram fractionation, interstitial fibrosis, and inflammatory cytokine (interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-α) gene overexpression in ventricular paced dogs with heart failure. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings establish an important link between inflammatory cytokine gene expression, interstitial fibrosis and myocardial electrical activation delays during premature excitation and provide insight into the mechanisms by which mineralocorticoid receptor antagonism may prevent development of an arrhythmogenic ventricular substrate in systolic heart failure.

Transmural dispersion of repolarization as a preclinical marker of drug-induced proarrhythmia.

Torsade de Pointes (TdP) proarrhythmia is a major complication of therapeutic drugs that block the delayed rectifier current. QT interval prolongation, the principal marker used to screen drugs for proarrhythmia, is both insensitive and nonspecific. Consequently, better screening methods are needed. Drug-induced transmural dispersion of repolarization (TDR) is mechanistically linked to TdP. Therefore, we hypothesized that drug-induced enhancement of TDR is more predictive of proarrhythmia than QT interval. High-resolution transmural optical action potential mapping was performed in canine wedge preparations (n = 19) at baseline and after perfusion with 4 different QT prolonging drugs at clinically relevant concentrations. Two proarrhythmic drugs in patients (bepridil and E4031) were compared with 2 nonproarrhythmic drugs (risperidone and verapamil). Both groups prolonged the QT (all P < 0.02), least with the proarrhythmic drug bepridil, reaffirming that QT is a poor predictor of TdP. In contrast, TDR was enhanced only by proarrhythmic drugs (P < 0.03). Increased TDR was due to a preferential prolongation of midmyocardial cell, relative to epicardial cell, APD, whereas nonproarrhythmic drugs similarly prolonged both cell types. In contrast to QT prolongation, augmentation of TDR was induced by proarrhythmic but not nonproarrhythmic drugs, suggesting TDR is a superior preclinical marker of proarrhythmic risk during drug development.

Expression profiling identifies Klf15 as a glucocorticoid target that regulates airway hyperresponsiveness.

Glucocorticoids (GCs), which activate GC receptor (GR) signaling and thus modulate gene expression, are widely used to treat asthma. GCs exert their therapeutic effects in part through modulating airway smooth muscle (ASM) structure and function. However, the effects of genes that are regulated by GCs on airway function are not fully understood. We therefore used transcription profiling to study the effects of a potent GC, dexamethasone, on human ASM (HASM) gene expression at 4 and 24 hours. After 24 hours of dexamethasone treatment, nearly 7,500 genes had statistically distinguishable changes in expression; quantitative PCR validation of a 40-gene subset of putative GR-regulated genes in 6 HASM cell lines suggested that the early transcriptional targets of GR signaling are similar in independent HASM lines. Gene ontology analysis implicated GR targets in controlling multiple aspects of ASM function. One GR-regulated gene, the transcription factor, Kruppel-like factor 15 (Klf15), was already known to modulate vascular smooth and cardiac muscle function, but had no known role in the lung. We therefore analyzed the pulmonary phenotype of Klf15(-/-) mice after ovalbumin sensitization and challenge. We found diminished airway responses to acetylcholine in ovalbumin-challenged Klf15(-/-) mice without a significant change in the induction of asthmatic inflammation. In cultured cells, overexpression of Klf15 reduced proliferation of HASM cells, whereas apoptosis in Klf15(-/-) murine ASM cells was increased. Together, these results further characterize the GR-regulated gene network in ASM and establish a novel role for the GR target, Klf15, in modulating airway function.

Kruppel-like factor 15 regulates smooth muscle response to vascular injury--brief report.

To determine the role of Kruppel-like factor (KLF) 15, a zinc finger transcriptional factor that is expressed in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) in vascular biology. VSMCs respond to mechanical injury via a tightly orchestrated series of gene regulatory events. KLF15 is broadly expressed in both arterial and venous vascular beds in a VSMC restricted fashion. KLF15 expression is markedly reduced by both pharmacological and mechanical stimuli. To examine the specific role of KLF15 in the vascular response to injury, we performed femoral artery wire injury in KLF15(-/-) and wild-type mice. KLF15(-/-) mice develop exaggerated neointimal growth, with evidence of increased SMC proliferation and migration within the neointima. In concordance, gain and loss of function studies in isolated VSMCs demonstrate that KLF15 can directly inhibit SMC proliferation and migration. To our knowledge, these data are the first to identify KLF15 as a novel inhibitor of VSMC proliferation and migration and to implicate this factor as a critical regulator of the vascular response to injury.

Krüppel-like factor 4 regulates pressure-induced cardiac hypertrophy.

Krüppel-like factors (KLF) are a subfamily of the zinc-finger class of transcriptional regulators that play important roles in diverse cellular processes. While a number of KLFs are expressed in cardiomyocytes, little is known about their specific roles in the heart in vivo. Here, we demonstrate that KLF4 is induced by hypertrophic stimuli in cultured cardiomyocytes and in the mouse heart. Overexpression of KLF4 in neonatal rat ventricular myocytes inhibits three cardinal features of cardiomyocyte hypertrophy: fetal gene expression, protein synthesis, and cell enlargement. Conversely, mice with cardiomyocyte-specific deletion of KLF4 (CM-K4KO) are highly sensitized to transverse aortic constriction (TAC) and exhibit high rates of mortality. CM-K4KO mice that survive TAC display severe pathologic cardiac hypertrophy characterized by increased cardiac mass, depressed LV systolic function, pulmonary congestion, cavity dilation and attenuated LV wall thickening when compared to control genotypes. In addition, CM-K4KO mice develop increased myocardial fibrosis and apoptotic cell death after TAC. Collectively, these studies implicate KLF4 as a novel transcriptional regulator that is indispensible for the heart's response to stress in vivo.

Pathophysiology and clinical implications of cardiac memory.

Altering the pattern of activation of the ventricle causes remodeling of the mechanical and electrical properties of the myocardium. The electrical remodeling is evident on the surface electrocardiogram as significant change in T-wave polarity following altered activation; this phenomenon is ascribed to as "T-wave memory" or "cardiac memory." The electrophysiological remodeling following altered activation is characterized by distinct changes in regions proximal (early-activated) versus distal (late-activated) to the site of altered activation. The early-activated region exhibits marked attenuation of epicardial phase 1 notch due to reduced expression of the transient outward potassium current (I(to)). This is attributed to electrotonic changes during altered activation, and angiotensin-mediated regulation of Kv4.3 (the pore-forming alpha subunit responsible for I(to)). The late-activated region exhibits the most significant action potential prolongation due to markedly increased mechanical strain through a mechano-electrical feedback mechanism. Consequently, regionally heterogeneous action potential remodeling occurs following altered activation. This enhances regional repolarization gradients that underlie the electrophysiological basis for T-wave memory. Further, recent clinical studies highlight detrimental consequences of altered activation including worsening mechanical function and increased susceptibility to arrhythmias. Future studies to identify molecular mechanisms that link electrotonic and mechanical strain-induced changes to cellular electrophysiology will provide important insights into the role of altered activation in regulating cardiac repolarization and arrhythmogenesis.

Mechanoelectrical feedback as novel mechanism of cardiac electrical remodeling.

BACKGROUND: Altered electrical activation of the heart by pacing or disease induces profound ventricular electrical remodeling (VER), manifested electrocardiographically as T-wave memory and ultimately as deleterious mechanical remodeling from heterogeneous strain. Although T-wave memory is associated with altered expression of sarcolemmal ion channels, the biophysical mechanisms responsible for triggering remodeling of cardiac ion channels are unknown. METHODS AND RESULTS: To test the hypothesis that mechanoelectrical feedback triggered by regional strain is a mechanism for VER, dogs (n=6) underwent 4 weeks of ventricular pacing to induce VER. Multisegment transmural optical action potential imaging of left ventricular wedges revealed profound and selective prolongation of action potential duration in late-activated (288+/-29 ms) compared with early-activated (250+/-9 ms) myocardial segments (P<0.05), providing the first experimental evidence that amplification of repolarization gradients between segments of left ventricle is the electrophysiological basis for T-wave memory. In vivo tagged magnetic resonance imaging revealed a 2-fold and preferential increase in circumferential strain in late-activated segments of myocardium, which exactly coincided with segments undergoing VER. VER could not be attributed to structural remodeling because it occurred without any histological evidence of cellular hypertrophy. CONCLUSIONS: The mechanism responsible for triggering remodeling of ion channel function in VER was locally enhanced circumferential strain. These data suggest a novel mechanoelectrical feedback mechanism for inducing physiological and potentially deleterious electrical heterogeneities in the heart.

I(Kr) channel blockade to unmask occult congenital long QT syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Patients with genetic evidence of long QT syndromes type 1 and 2 (LQT1, associated with impaired outward potassium current I(Ks); and LQT2, associated with impaired outward potassium current I(Kr)) may have normal baseline QT intervals (phenotype/genotype discordance) and elude clinical detection. Beta-adrenergic stimulation may unmask occult LQT1, but no maneuver has consistently unmasked the LQT2 phenotype. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to test the repolarization reserve hypothesis (multiple challenges to repolarization are required to produce an abnormal phenotype), using subjects with LQT1 and LQT2 mutations but normal QT interval. We hypothesized that I(Kr) channel blockade would prolong the QT interval excessively in subjects with LQTS compared with controls and that I(Kr) channel blockade could unmask the abnormal LQTS phenotype in subjects with LQTS versus controls, as measured by the T peak-to-end interval (Tpe), a sensitive measure of abnormal repolarization. METHODS: Subjects with known LQT1 (n = 5) and LQT2 (n = 6) mutations but baseline QTc < or = 450 ms and age- and gender-matched controls (n = 22) received intravenous erythromycin (an I(Kr) blocker). RR, QRS, QT, and Tpe intervals were measured at baseline and after drug infusion. RESULTS: Erythromycin caused only modest QT prolongation in all groups. In contrast, Tpe was specifically prolonged by I(Kr) channel blockade in LQT2 subjects but not in LQT1 subjects or controls. CONCLUSION: Short-acting I(Kr) channel blockade, together with the sensitive repolarization measure Tpe, can unmask abnormal repolarization in LQT2. Our finding of abnormal repolarization in LQT2 subjects exposed to I(Kr) channel blockade supports the repolarization reserve hypothesis.

The zebrafish as a novel animal model to study the molecular mechanisms of mechano-electrical feedback in the heart.

Altered mechanical loading of the heart leads to hypertrophy, decompensated heart failure and fatal arrhythmias. However, the molecular mechanisms that link mechanical and electrical dysfunction remain poorly understood. Growing evidence suggest that ventricular electrical remodeling (VER) is a process that can be induced by altered mechanical stress, creating persistent electrophysiological changes that predispose the heart to life-threatening arrhythmias. While VER is clearly a physiological property of the human heart, as evidenced by "T wave memory", it is also thought to occur in a variety of pathological states associated with altered ventricular activation such as bundle branch block, myocardial infarction, and cardiac pacing. Animal models that are currently being used for investigating stretch-induced VER have significant limitations. The zebrafish has recently emerged as an attractive animal model for studying cardiovascular disease and could overcome some of these limitations. Owing to its extensively sequenced genome, high conservation of gene function, and the comprehensive genetic resources that are available in this model, the zebrafish may provide new insights into the molecular mechanisms that drive detrimental electrical remodeling in response to stretch. Here, we have established a zebrafish model to study mechano-electrical feedback in the heart, which combines efficient genetic manipulation with high-precision stretch and high-resolution electrophysiology. In this model, only 90 min of ventricular stretch caused VER and recapitulated key features of VER found previously in the mammalian heart. Our data suggest that the zebrafish model is a powerful platform for investigating the molecular mechanisms underlying mechano-electrical feedback and VER in the heart.

Klf15 orchestrates circadian nitrogen homeostasis.

Diurnal variation in nitrogen homeostasis is observed across phylogeny. But whether these are endogenous rhythms, and if so, molecular mechanisms that link nitrogen homeostasis to the circadian clock remain unknown. Here, we provide evidence that a clock-dependent peripheral oscillator, Krüppel-like factor 15 transcriptionally coordinates rhythmic expression of multiple enzymes involved in mammalian nitrogen homeostasis. In particular, Krüppel-like factor 15-deficient mice exhibit no discernable amino acid rhythm, and the rhythmicity of ammonia to urea detoxification is impaired. Of the external cues, feeding plays a dominant role in modulating Krüppel-like factor 15 rhythm and nitrogen homeostasis. Further, when all behavioral, environmental and dietary cues were controlled in humans, nitrogen homeostasis exhibited an endogenous circadian rhythmicity. Thus, in mammals, nitrogen homeostasis exhibits circadian rhythmicity, and is orchestrated by Krüppel-like factor 15.

Cardiac electrical remodeling in health and disease.

Electrical remodeling of the heart takes place in response to both functional (altered electrical activation) and structural (including heart failure and myocardial infarction) stressors. These electrophysiological changes produce a substrate that is prone to malignant ventricular arrhythmias. Understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms of electrical remodeling is important in elucidating potential therapeutic targets designed to alter maladaptive electrical remodeling. For example, altered patterns of electrical activation lead primarily to electrical remodeling, without significant structural remodeling. By contrast, secondary remodeling arises in response to a structural insult. In this article we review cardiac electrical remodeling (predominantly in the ventricle) with an emphasis on the mechanisms causing these adaptations. These mechanisms suggest novel therapeutic targets for the management or prevention of the most devastating manifestation of heart disease, sudden cardiac death (SCD).

Enhanced dispersion of repolarization explains increased arrhythmogenesis in severe versus therapeutic hypothermia.

BACKGROUND: Hypothermia is proarrhythmic, and, as the use of therapeutic hypothermia (TH) increases, it is critically important to understand the electrophysiological effects of hypothermia on cardiac myocytes and arrhythmia substrates. We tested the hypothesis that hypothermia-enhanced transmural dispersion of repolarization (DOR) is a mechanism of arrhythmogenesis in hypothermia. In addition, we investigated whether the degree of hypothermia, the rate of temperature change, and cooling versus rewarming would alter hypothermia-induced arrhythmia substrates. METHODS AND RESULTS: Optical action potentials were recorded from cells spanning the transmural wall of canine left ventricular wedge preparations at baseline (36°C), during cooling and during rewarming. Electrophysiological parameters were examined while varying the depth of hypothermia. On cooling to 26°C, DOR increased from 26±4 ms to 93±18 ms (P=0.021); conduction velocity decreased from 35±5 cm/s to 22±5 cm/s (P=0.010). On rewarming to 36°C, DOR remained prolonged, whereas conduction velocity returned to baseline. Conduction block and reentry was observed in all severe hypothermia preparations. Ventricular fibrillation/ventricular tachycardia was seen more during rewarming (4/5) versus cooling (2/6). In TH (n=7), cooling to 32°C mildly increased DOR (31±6 to 50±9, P=0.012), with return to baseline on rewarming and was associated with decreased arrhythmia susceptibility. Increased rate of cooling did not further enhance DOR or arrhythmogenesis. CONCLUSIONS: Hypothermia amplifies DOR and is a mechanism for arrhythmogenesis. DOR is directly dependent on the depth of cooling and rewarming. This provides insight into the clinical observation of a low incidence of arrhythmias in TH and has implications for protocols for the clinical application of TH.