The Congenital Syphilis Prevention Cascade: Reimagining a Missed Prevention Opportunities Framework for Effective Intervention.

ABSTRACT: Congenital syphilis (CS) rates have risen in the United States since 2013. Prevention of CS requires testing and treatment of pregnant and pregnancy-capable persons at high risk for syphilis. We developed a CS Prevention Cascade to assess how effectively testing and treatment interventions reached pregnant persons with a CS outcome.

Cervical adenocarcinoma in situ: Human papillomavirus types and incidence trends in five states, 2008-2015.

Primary prevention through the use of human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination is expected to impact both cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) and adenocarcinoma in situ (AIS). While CIN is well described, less is known about the epidemiology of AIS, a rare cervical precancer. We identified AIS and CIN grade 3 (CIN3) cases through population-based surveillance, and analyzed data on HPV types and incidence trends overall, and among women screened for cervical cancer. From 2008 to 2015, 470 AIS and 6,587 CIN3 cases were identified. The median age of women with AIS was older than those with CIN3 (35 vs. 31 years; p < 0.01). HPV16 was the most frequently detected type in both AIS and CIN3 (57% in AIS; 58% in CIN3), whereas HPV18 was the second most common type in AIS and less common in CIN3 (38% vs. 5%; p < 0.01). AIS lesions were more likely than CIN3 lesions to be positive for high-risk types targeted by the bivalent and quadrivalent vaccines (HPV16/18, 92% vs. 63%; p < 0.01), and 9-valent vaccine (HPV16/18/31/33/45/52/58, 95% vs. 87%; p < 0.01). AIS incidence rates decreased significantly in the 21-24 year age group (annual percent change [APC] overall: -22.1%, 95% CI: -33.9 to -8.2; APC among screened: -16.1%, 95% CI: -28.8 to -1.2), but did not decrease significantly in any older age group. This report on the largest number of genotyped AIS cases to date suggests an important opportunity for vaccine prevention of AIS, and is the first to document a decline in AIS incidence rates among young women during the vaccine era.

Effectiveness of 1, 2, and 3 Doses of Human Papillomavirus Vaccine Against High-Grade Cervical Lesions Positive for Human Papillomavirus 16 or 18.

Before 2016, human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination was recommended on a 3-dose schedule. However, many vaccine-eligible US females received fewer than 3 doses, which provided an opportunity to evaluate the real-world vaccine effectiveness (VE) of 1, 2, and 3 doses. We analyzed data on cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) grades 2-3 and adenocarcinoma in situ (designated CIN2+) from the HPV Vaccine Impact Monitoring Project (HPV-IMPACT; 2008-2014). Archived tissue from CIN2+ lesions was tested for 37 types of HPV. Women were classified by number of doses received ≥24 months before CIN2+ detection. Using a test-negative design, VE was estimated as 1 minus the adjusted odds ratio from a logistic regression model that compared vaccination history for women whose lesions tested positive for HPV-16/18 (vaccine-type cases) with that for women who had all other CIN2+ lesions (controls). Among 3,300 women with available data on CIN2+, typing results, and vaccine history, 1,561 (47%) were HPV-16/18-positive, 136 (4%) received 1 dose of HPV vaccine, 108 (3%) received 2 doses, and 325 (10%) received 3 doses. Adjusted odds ratios for vaccination with 1, 2, and 3 doses were 0.53 (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.37, 0.76; VE = 47%), 0.45 (95% CI: 0.30, 0.69; VE = 55%), and 0.26 (95% CI: 0.20, 0.35; VE = 74%), respectively. We found significant VE against vaccine-type CIN2+ after 3 doses of HPV vaccine and lower but significant VE with 1 or 2 doses.

Trends in High-grade Cervical Lesions and Cervical Cancer Screening in 5 States, 2008-2015.

BACKGROUND: We describe changes in rates of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grades 2, 3 and adenocarcinoma in situ (CIN2+) during a period of human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine uptake and changing cervical cancer screening recommendations. METHODS: We conducted population-based laboratory surveillance for CIN2+ in catchment areas in 5 states, 2008-2015. We calculated age-specific CIN2+ rates per 100000 women by age groups. We estimated incidence rate ratios (IRR) of CIN2+ for 2-year periods among all women and among screened women to evaluate changes over time. RESULTS: A total of 16572 CIN2+ cases were reported. Among women aged 18-20 and 21-24 years, CIN2+ rates declined in all sites, whereas in women aged 25-29, 30-34, and 35-39 years, trends differed across sites. The percent of women screened annually declined in all sites and age groups. Compared to 2008-2009, rates among screened women were significantly lower for all 3 periods in women aged 18-20 years (2010-2011: IRR 0.82, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.67-0.99; 2012-2013: IRR 0.63, 95% CI 0.47-0.85; 2014-2015: IRR 0.44, 95% CI 0.28-0.68) and lower for the latter 2 time periods in women aged 21-24 years (2012-2013: IRR 0.86, 95% CI 0.79-0.94; 2014-2015: IRR 0.61, 95% CI 0.55-0.67). CONCLUSIONS: From 2008-2015, both CIN2+ rates and cervical cancer screening declined in women aged 18-24 years. The significant decreases in CIN2+ rates among screened women aged 18-24 years are consistent with a population-level impact of HPV vaccination.

Self-Reported History of Chlamydia or Gonorrhea Testing Among Heterosexual Women at High Risk of HIV Infection, National HIV Behavioral Surveillance, 2013.

BACKGROUND: The US Preventive Services Task Force recommends annual chlamydia and gonorrhea screening for sexually active women <25 and ≥25 years old with associated risk factors. We sought to determine self-reported chlamydia and gonorrhea testing and diagnosis rates in the past 12 months in a community-based sample of heterosexual women at high risk of HIV infection. METHODS: We used National HIV Behavioral Surveillance data from 2013 when surveillance was conducted in heterosexual adults with low social economic status. Our analysis was restricted to 18- to 44-year-old women who answered questions regarding chlamydia/gonorrhea testing and diagnosis in the previous 12 months. We calculated the percentage reporting testing and diagnosis. Poisson regressions with generalized estimating equations clustered on recruitment chain were used to assess factors associated with testing and diagnosis. RESULTS: Among 18- to 24-year-old women (n = 1017), 61.0% self-reported chlamydia testing and 57.6% gonorrhea testing in the past 12 months. Among 25- to 44-year-old women (n = 2322), 49.0% and 47.0% reported chlamydia and gonorrhea testing, respectively. Among the subset of 25- to 44-year-old women who met screening criteria, 51.2% reported chlamydia testing. Having seen a medical provider and HIV testing (past 12 months) were associated with chlamydia/gonorrhea testing in both age groups. Self-reported chlamydia (18-24 years, 21.4%; 25-44 years, 12.2%) and gonorrhea diagnoses (18-24 years, 8.4%; 25-44 years, 6.6%) were common. CONCLUSIONS: A substantial number of eligible women may not have been screened for chlamydia/gonorrhea. Renewed efforts to facilitate screening may prevent sequelae and support disease control activities.

Extragenital Chlamydia and Gonorrhea Among Community Venue-Attending Men Who Have Sex with Men - Five Cities, United States, 2017.

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) disproportionately affect gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (MSM) in the United States (1). Because chlamydia and gonorrhea at extragenital (rectal and pharyngeal) anatomic sites are often asymptomatic, these anatomic sites serve as a reservoir of infection, which might contribute to gonococcal antimicrobial resistance (2) and increased risk for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transmission and acquisition (3). To ascertain prevalence of extragenital STDs, MSM attending community venues were recruited in five U.S. cities to provide self-collected swabs for chlamydia and gonorrhea screening as part of National HIV Behavioral Surveillance (NHBS). Overall, 2,075 MSM provided specimens with valid results, and 13.3% of participants were infected with at least one of the two pathogens in at least one of these two extragenital anatomic sites. Approximately one third of participating MSM had not been screened for STDs in the previous 12 months. MSM attending community venues had a high prevalence of asymptomatic extragenital STDs. The findings underscore the importance of sexually active MSM following current recommendations for STD screening at all exposed anatomic sites at least annually (4).

Pre-exposure Prophylaxis Use and Detected Sexually Transmitted Infections Among Men Who Have Sex With Men in the United States-National HIV Behavioral Surveillance, 5 US Cities, 2017.

BACKGROUND: Men who have sex with men (MSM) using HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) may be at high risk for bacterial sexually transmitted infections (STIs). We examined the prevalence of extragenital gonorrhea and chlamydia by PrEP status among a multisite sample of US MSM. METHODS: MSM aged ≥18 years were recruited through venue-based sampling to participate in the 2017 National HIV Behavioral Surveillance. In 5 cities (San Francisco, Washington DC, New York City, Miami, and Houston), participants completed a questionnaire, HIV testing, and pharyngeal and rectal STI specimen self-collection. We measured prevalence of pharyngeal and rectal gonorrhea and chlamydia among self-reported non-HIV-positive MSM who reported using or not using PrEP in the previous 12 months. RESULTS: Overall, 29.6% (481/1627) of non-HIV-positive MSM reported PrEP use in the past year. MSM who reported PrEP use were more likely to have any STI (ie, extragenital gonorrhea and/or chlamydia) than MSM not on PrEP [14.6% vs. 12.0%, adjusted prevalence ratio (aPR) = 1.5, 95% confidence interval (CI) : 1.1 to 2.0], reflecting differences in rectal chlamydia prevalence (8.7% vs. 6.0%, aPR = 1.6, 95% CI: 1.1 to 2.4). PrEP use was not associated with pharyngeal chlamydia, pharyngeal gonorrhea, or rectal gonorrhea. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of extragenital STI was high for both MSM on PrEP and those not on PrEP in the past year. MSM on PrEP were more likely to have rectal chlamydia but not pharyngeal STIs or rectal gonorrhea. Our findings support regular STI testing at exposed anatomic sites as recommended for sexually active MSM, including those on PrEP.