RESUMEN
Biogas consisting primarily of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) can be upgraded to a transportation fuel referred to as renewable natural gas (RNG) by removing CO2 and other impurities. RNG has energy content comparable to fossil compressed natural gas (CNG) but with lower life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In this study, a light-duty cargo van was tested with CNG and two RNG blends on a chassis dynamometer in order to compare the toxicity of the resulting exhaust. Tests for reactive oxygen species (ROS), biomarker expressions (CYP1A1, IL8, COX-2), and mutagenicity (Ames) show that RNG exhaust has toxicity that is comparable or lower than CNG exhaust. Statistical analysis reveals associations between toxicity and tailpipe emissions of benzene, dibenzofuran, and dihydroperoxide dimethyl hexane (the last identification is considered tentative/uncertain). Further gas-phase toxicity may be associated with tailpipe emissions of formaldehyde, dimethyl sulfide, propene, and methyl ketene. CNG exhaust contained higher concentrations of these potentially toxic chemical constituents than RNG exhaust in all of the current tests. Photochemical aging of the vehicle exhaust did not alter these trends. These preliminary results suggest that RNG adoption may be a useful strategy to reduce the carbon intensity of transportation fuels without increasing the toxicity of the vehicle exhaust.
Asunto(s)
Contaminantes Atmosféricos , Gas Natural , Contaminantes Atmosféricos/análisis , Biocombustibles , Gasolina , Metano/análisis , Emisiones de Vehículos/análisis , Emisiones de Vehículos/toxicidadRESUMEN
There is strong evidence that exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and a high-fat diet (HFD) increase the risk of mortality from atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases. Recent studies indicate that PM2.5 generated by combustion activates the Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor (AHR) and inflammatory cytokines contributing to PM2.5-mediated atherogenesis. Here we investigate the effects of components of a HFD on PM-mediated activation of AHR in macrophages. Cells were treated with components of a HFD and AHR-activating PM and the expression of biomarkers of vascular inflammation was analyzed. The results show that glucose and triglyceride increase AHR-activity and PM2.5-mediated induction of cytochrome P450 (CYP)1A1 mRNA in macrophages. Cholesterol, fructose, and palmitic acid increased the PM- and AHR-mediated induction of proinflammatory cytokines in macrophages. Treatment with palmitic acid significantly increased the expression of inflammatory cytokines and markers of vascular injury in human aortic endothelial cells (HAEC) after treatment with PM2.5. The PM2.5-mediated activation of the atherogenic markers C-reactive protein (CRP) and S100A9, a damage-associated molecular pattern molecule, was found to be AHR-dependent and involved protein kinase A (PKA) and a CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein (C/EBP) binding element. This study identified nutritional factors interacting with AHR signaling and contributing to PM2.5-induced markers of atherogenesis and future cardiovascular risk.
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Aterosclerosis/genética , Factores de Transcripción con Motivo Hélice-Asa-Hélice Básico/fisiología , Biomarcadores/metabolismo , Inflamación/genética , Nutrientes/farmacología , Receptores de Hidrocarburo de Aril/fisiología , Aorta , Aterosclerosis/etiología , Aterosclerosis/metabolismo , Factores de Transcripción con Motivo Hélice-Asa-Hélice Básico/metabolismo , Calgranulina B/efectos de los fármacos , Calgranulina B/genética , Calgranulina B/metabolismo , Células Cultivadas , Colesterol/farmacología , Dieta Alta en Grasa , Células Endoteliales/efectos de los fármacos , Células Endoteliales/metabolismo , Células Endoteliales/patología , Fructosa/farmacología , Regulación de la Expresión Génica/efectos de los fármacos , Glucosa/farmacología , Humanos , Inflamación/etiología , Inflamación/metabolismo , Activación de Macrófagos/efectos de los fármacos , Activación de Macrófagos/genética , Macrófagos/efectos de los fármacos , Macrófagos/fisiología , Ácido Palmítico/farmacología , Material Particulado/farmacología , Receptores de Hidrocarburo de Aril/metabolismo , Transducción de Señal/efectos de los fármacos , Transducción de Señal/genética , Triglicéridos/farmacología , Células U937RESUMEN
Biogas is a renewable energy source composed of methane, carbon dioxide, and other trace compounds produced from anaerobic digestion of organic matter. A variety of feedstocks can be combined with different digestion techniques that each yields biogas with different trace compositions. California is expanding biogas production systems to help meet greenhouse gas reduction goals. Here, we report the composition of six California biogas streams from three different feedstocks (dairy manure, food waste, and municipal solid waste). The chemical and biological composition of raw biogas is reported, and the toxicity of combusted biogas is tested under fresh and photochemically aged conditions. Results show that municipal waste biogas contained elevated levels of chemicals associated with volatile chemical products such as aromatic hydrocarbons, siloxanes, and certain halogenated hydrocarbons. Food waste biogas contained elevated levels of sulfur-containing compounds including hydrogen sulfide, mercaptans, and sulfur dioxide. Biogas produced from dairy manure generally had lower concentrations of trace chemicals, but the combustion products had slightly higher toxicity response compared to the other feedstocks. Atmospheric aging performed in a photochemical smog chamber did not strongly change the toxicity (oxidative capacity or mutagenicity) of biogas combustion exhaust.
Asunto(s)
Biocombustibles , Eliminación de Residuos , Anaerobiosis , Reactores Biológicos , California , Alimentos , Estiércol , MetanoRESUMEN
Biogas and biomethane (=purified biogas) are major renewable fuels that play a pivotal role in the evolving global energy economy. Here, we measure ultrafine particle (UFP; Dp (particle diameter) < 100 nm) emissions from the combustion of biomethane and biogas produced from five different representative sources: two food waste digesters, two dairy waste digesters, and one landfill. Combustion exhaust for each of these sources is measured from one or more representative sectors including electricity generation, motor vehicles, and household use. Results show that UFP emissions are similar when using biomethane and natural gas with similar sulfur and siloxane content. Approximately 70% of UFPs emitted from water heaters and cooking stoves were semivolatile, but 30% of the UFPs were nonvolatile and did not evaporate even under extremely high dilution conditions. Photochemical aging of biomethane combustion exhaust and natural gas combustion exhaust produced similar amounts of secondary organic aerosol (SOA) formation. The results of the current study suggest that widespread adoption of biogas and biomethane as a substitute for natural gas will not significantly increase ambient concentrations of primary and secondary UFPs if advanced combustion technology is used and the sulfur and siloxane content is similar for biogas/biomethane and natural gas.
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Biocombustibles , Gas Natural , Aerosoles , Vehículos a Motor , Emisiones de VehículosRESUMEN
Exposures to air pollution in the form of particulate matter (PM) can result in excess production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the respiratory system, potentially causing both localized cellular injury and triggering a systemic inflammatory response. PM-induced inflammation in the lung is modulated in large part by alveolar macrophages and their biochemical signaling, including production of inflammatory cytokines, the primary mechanism via which inflammation is initiated and sustained. We developed a robust, relevant, and flexible method employing a rat alveolar macrophage cell line (NR8383) which can be applied to routine samples of PM from air quality monitoring sites to gain insight into the drivers of PM toxicity that lead to oxidative stress and inflammation. Method performance was characterized using extracts of ambient and vehicular engine exhaust PM samples. Our results indicate that the reproducibility and the sensitivity of the method are satisfactory and comparisons between PM samples can be made with good precision. The average relative percent difference for all genes detected during 10 different exposures was 17.1%. Our analysis demonstrated that 71% of genes had an average signal to noise ratio (SNR) ≥ 3. Our time course study suggests that 4 h may be an optimal in vitro exposure time for observing short-term effects of PM and capturing the initial steps of inflammatory signaling. The 4 h exposure resulted in the detection of 57 genes (out of 84 total), of which 86% had altered expression. Similarities and conserved gene signaling regulation among the PM samples were demonstrated through hierarchical clustering and other analyses. Overlying the core congruent patterns were differentially regulated genes that resulted in distinct sample-specific gene expression "fingerprints." Consistent upregulation of Il1f5 and downregulation of Ccr7 was observed across all samples, while TNFα was upregulated in half of the samples and downregulated in the other half. Overall, this PM-induced cytokine expression assay could be effectively integrated into health studies and air quality monitoring programs to better understand relationships between specific PM components, oxidative stress activity and inflammatory signaling potential.
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Contaminantes Atmosféricos/toxicidad , Citocinas/metabolismo , Regulación de la Expresión Génica/efectos de los fármacos , Material Particulado/toxicidad , Animales , Línea Celular , Análisis por Conglomerados , Citocinas/genética , Macrófagos Alveolares/citología , Macrófagos Alveolares/efectos de los fármacos , Macrófagos Alveolares/metabolismo , Estrés Oxidativo/efectos de los fármacos , Ratas , Especies Reactivas de Oxígeno/metabolismoRESUMEN
UNLABELLED: In total, 24 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in both gas and particle phases and 35 nitro-PAHs in particle phase were analyzed in the exhaust from heavy-duty diesel vehicles equipped with after-treatment for particulate matter (PM) and NO(x) control. The test vehicles were carried out using a chassis dynamometer under highway cruise, transient Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule (UDDS), and idle operation. The after-treatment efficiently abated more than 90% of the total PAHs. Indeed, the particle-bound PAHs were reduced by > 99%, and the gaseous PAHs were removed at various extents depending on the type of after-treatment and the test cycles. The PAHs in gas phase dominated the total PAH (gas + particle phases) emissions for all the test vehicles and for all cycles; that is, 99% of the two-ring and 98% of the three-ring and 97% of the four-ring and 95% of the carcinogenic PAHs were in the gas-phase after a diesel particle filter (DPF) and not bound to the very small amount of particulate matter left after a DPF. Consequently, an evaluation of the toxicity of DPF exhaust must include this volatile fraction and cannot be based on the particle fraction only. The selective catalytic reduction (SCR) did not appear to promote nitration of the PAHs in general, although there might be some selective nitration of phenanthrene. Importantly the after-treatment reduced the equivalent B[a]P (B[a]Peq) emissions by > 95%, suggesting a substantial health benefit. IMPLICATIONS: This study demonstrated that after-treatments, including diesel particulate filters (DPF), diesel oxidation catalysts (DOC), and selective catalytic reduction (SCR), significantly reduce the emissions of PAHs from heavy-duty diesel engines. The gas-phase PAHs dominate the total PAH (gas + particle phases) emissions from heavy-duty diesel vehicles retrofitted with various DPFs and not bound to the very small amount of particulate matter left after a DPF. Consequently, an evaluation of the toxicity of DPF exhaust must also include this volatile fraction and cannot be based on the particle fraction only.
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Contaminación del Aire/prevención & control , Hidrocarburos Policíclicos Aromáticos/análisis , Emisiones de Vehículos/análisis , Contaminantes Atmosféricos/análisis , Catálisis , FiltraciónRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: The purpose of the present study was to investigate activation of inflammatory markers in human macrophages derived from the U937 cell line after exposure to particulate matter (PM) collected on dairy farms in California and to identify the most potent components of the PM. METHODS: PM from different dairies were collected and tested to induce an inflammatory response determined by the expression of various pro-inflammatory genes, such as Interleukin (IL)-8, in U937 derived macrophages. Gel shift and luciferase reporter assays were performed to examine the activation of nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) and Toll-like-receptor 4 (TLR4). RESULTS: Macrophage exposure to PM derived from dairy farms significantly activated expression of pro-inflammatory genes, including IL-8, cyclooxygenase 2 and Tumor necrosis factor-alpha, which are hallmarks of inflammation. Acute phase proteins, such as serum amyloid A and IL-6, were also significantly upregulated in macrophages treated with PM from dairies. Coarse PM fractions demonstrated more pro-inflammatory activity on an equal-dose basis than fine PM. Urban PM collected from the same region as the dairy farms was associated with a lower concentration of endotoxin and produced significantly less IL-8 expression compared to PM collected on the dairy farms. CONCLUSION: The present study provides evidence that the endotoxin components of the particles collected on dairies play a major role in mediating an inflammatory response through activation of TLR4 and NF-κB signaling.
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Industria Lechera , Inflamación/metabolismo , Activación de Macrófagos/efectos de los fármacos , Macrófagos/metabolismo , Material Particulado/toxicidad , Humanos , Interleucina-8/metabolismo , Activación de Macrófagos/fisiología , FN-kappa B/metabolismo , Tamaño de la Partícula , Material Particulado/análisis , Material Particulado/farmacología , Receptor Toll-Like 4/metabolismo , Células U937RESUMEN
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) contained in airborne particulate matter have been identified as a contributing factor for inflammation in the respiratory tract. Recently, interleukin-33 (IL-33) is strongly suggested to be associated with airway inflammation. Aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a receptor for PAHs to regulate several metabolic enzymes, but the relationships between AhR and airway inflammation are still unclear. In this study, we examined the role of AhR in the expression of IL-33 in macrophages. THP-1 macrophages mainly expressed IL-33 variant 5, which in turn was strongly induced by the AhR agonists 2, 3, 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) and kynurenine (KYN). AhR antagonist CH223191 suppressed the increase in IL-33 expression. Promoter analysis revealed that the IL-33 promoter has 2 dioxin response elements (DREs). AhR was recruited to both DREs after treatment with TCDD or KYN as assessed by gel shift and chromatin immunoprecipitation assays. A luciferase assay showed that one of the DREs was functional and involved in the expression of IL-33. Macrophages isolated from AhR-null mice expressed only low levels of IL-33 even in response to treatment with AhR ligands compared with wild-type cells. The treatment of THP-1 macrophages with diesel particulate matter and particle extracts increased the mRNA and protein expression of IL-33. Taken together, the results show that ligand-activated AhR mediates the induction of IL-33 in macrophages via a DRE located in the IL-33 promoter region. AhR-mediated IL-33 induction could be involved in the exacerbation and/or prolongation of airway inflammation elicited by toxic chemical substances.
Asunto(s)
Factores de Transcripción con Motivo Hélice-Asa-Hélice Básico/fisiología , Interleucina-33/genética , Macrófagos/metabolismo , Receptores de Hidrocarburo de Aril/fisiología , Animales , Exones , Humanos , Inflamación/etiología , Quinurenina/farmacología , Masculino , Ratones , Ratones Endogámicos C57BL , Dibenzodioxinas Policloradas/farmacología , Regiones Promotoras Genéticas , Elementos de Respuesta/fisiología , Células THP-1RESUMEN
Biodiesel or renewable diesel fuels are alternative fuels produced from vegetable oil and animal tallow that are being considered to help reduce the use of petroleum-based fuels and emissions of air pollutants including greenhouse gases. Here, we analyzed the gene expression of inflammatory marker responses and the cytochrome P450 1A1 (CYP1A1) enzyme after exposure to diesel and biodiesel emission samples generated from an in-use heavy-duty diesel vehicle. Particulate emission samples from petroleum-based California Air Resource Board (CARB)-certified ultralow sulfur diesel (CARB ULSD), biodiesel, and renewable hydro-treated diesel all induced inflammatory markers such as cyclooxygenase-2 (COX)-2 and interleukin (IL)-8 in human U937-derived macrophages and the expression of the xenobiotic metabolizing enzyme CYP1A1. Furthermore, the results indicate that the particle emissions from CARB ULSD and the alternative diesel fuel blends activate the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and induce CYP1A1 in a dose- and AhR-dependent manner which was supported by the AhR luciferase reporter assay and gel shift analysis. Based on a per mile emissions with the model year 2000 heavy duty vehicle tested, the effects of the alternative diesel fuel blends emissions on the expression on inflammatory markers like IL-8 and COX-2 tend to be lower than emission samples derived from CARB ULSD fuel. The results will help to assess the potential benefits and toxicity from biofuel use as alternative fuels in modern technology diesel engines.
Asunto(s)
Factores de Transcripción con Motivo Hélice-Asa-Hélice Básico/fisiología , Biocombustibles/toxicidad , Citocromo P-450 CYP1A1/metabolismo , Gasolina/toxicidad , Mediadores de Inflamación/metabolismo , Macrófagos/patología , Receptores de Hidrocarburo de Aril/fisiología , Emisiones de Vehículos/toxicidad , Contaminantes Atmosféricos/análisis , Contaminantes Atmosféricos/toxicidad , Animales , Biocombustibles/análisis , Gasolina/análisis , Humanos , Macrófagos/efectos de los fármacos , Macrófagos/inmunología , Ratones , Ratones Endogámicos C57BL , Ratones Noqueados , Emisiones de Vehículos/análisisRESUMEN
The concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were investigated in a pilot study of field wheat grain as a model indicator for environmental contamination. The edible grain would serve as a portal for human exposure. Wheat grain was initially studied since it is one of the major food crops consumed internationally by many including infants and children. Wheat grain samples from five different geographical growing locations in California that span approximately 450 km were collected during the same growing season. The same variety of grain was harvested and analyzed for PAHs that ranged from 2- to 6-rings. PAHs were detected in all grain samples and were mainly 2- to 4-ring PAHs with naphthalene the most abundant among them. There were geographical differences in the levels of PAHs in the grain. The sources of the PAHs were not known in this pilot study, but the principal component analysis indicates that the major source is similar in all locations except for naphthalene. Grain naphthalene concentrations may reflect local naphthalene emissions. Diesel-fueled harvesting operations did not appear to contribute to the observed PAH concentrations in the grain. An estimate of naphthalene intake from eating grain compared to inhalation intake demonstrated the potential importance of field contamination of grain as a possible portal of human exposure. The relationship between PAH concentrations in grain and air should be quantitatively investigated to better quantitate exposure and to identify effective measures to lower the risk from PAH exposure through eating grain.
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Productos Agrícolas/química , Exposición a Riesgos Ambientales/análisis , Hidrocarburos Policíclicos Aromáticos/análisis , Triticum/química , Agricultura/instrumentación , Atmósfera , California , Ingestión de Alimentos , Gasolina , Geografía , Humanos , Naftalenos , Proyectos PilotoRESUMEN
Exposure to particulate matter air pollution causes inflammatory responses and is associated with the progression of atherosclerosis and increased cardiovascular mortality. Macrophages play a key role in atherogenesis by releasing proinflammatory cytokines and forming foam cells in subendothelial lesions. The present study quantified the inflammatory response in a human macrophage cell line (U937) after exposure to an ambient particulate sample from urban dust (UDP) and a diesel exhaust particulate (DEP). The effect of native UDP and DEP was compared with their corresponding organic extracts (OE-UDP/OE-DEP) and stripped particles (sUDP/sDEP) to clarify their respective roles. Exposure to OE-UDP, OE-DEP, UDP, DEP, and 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin led to a greater increase of interleukin (IL)-8, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and cyclooxygenase-2 mRNA expression than did the stripped particles, whereas sUDP, sDEP, UDP, and DEP led to a greater production of C-reactive protein and IL-6 mRNA. The particles and the organic extract-induced expression of cyclooxygenase-2 and cytochrome P450 (CYP)1a1 was significantly suppressed by co-treatment with an aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) antagonist, indicating that these effects are mainly mediated by the organic components, which can activate the AhR and CYP1a1. In contrast, the induction of C-reactive protein and IL-6 seems to be a particle-related effect that is AhR independent. The inflammatory response induced by particulate matter was associated with a subsequent increase of cholesterol accumulation, a hallmark of foam cells. Together, these data illustrate the interaction between particulate matter and the inflammatory response as well as the formation of cholesterol-accumulating foam cells, which are early markers of cardiovascular disease.
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Contaminantes Atmosféricos/toxicidad , Polvo , Emisiones de Vehículos/toxicidad , Proteína C-Reactiva/genética , Proteína C-Reactiva/metabolismo , Proteína beta Potenciadora de Unión a CCAAT/genética , Proteína beta Potenciadora de Unión a CCAAT/metabolismo , Ciudades , Ciclooxigenasa 2/genética , Ciclooxigenasa 2/metabolismo , Citocromo P-450 CYP1A1/genética , Citocromo P-450 CYP1A1/metabolismo , Citocinas/genética , Citocinas/metabolismo , Regulación de la Expresión Génica/efectos de los fármacos , Humanos , ARN Mensajero/metabolismo , Receptores de Hidrocarburo de Aril/metabolismo , Células U937RESUMEN
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) can partition from the atmosphere into agricultural crops, contributing to exposure through the dietary pathway. In this study, controlled environmental chamber experiments were conducted to investigate the transfer of PAHs from air into wheat grain, which is a major food staple. A series of PAHs ranging in size from naphthalene to pyrene were maintained at elevated gas-phase concentrations in the chamber housing mature and dry wheat grain both on the plant and with the husk removed. The PAHs did not achieve equilibrium between the air and grain over the 6.5 month monitoring period used in this study. Therefore, PAH uptake under field conditions is expected to be kinetically limited. A clearance study conducted for the grain showed the half-life of clearance was approximately 20 days for all compounds studied. The results suggest that atmospheric contaminants that partition into grain may remain in the grain long enough to contribute to dietary exposure for humans. Mass transfer across the air/grain interface appeared to be limited by grain-side resistance. The grain may act as a multicompartment system with rapid exchange at the surface followed by slower transfer into the grain. A grain/air concentration relationship was derived for the uptake time that is relevant to field conditions.
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Contaminantes Atmosféricos/análisis , Grano Comestible/metabolismo , Monitoreo del Ambiente/métodos , Hidrocarburos Policíclicos Aromáticos/análisis , Triticum/metabolismo , Agricultura , Aire , Dieta , Difusión , Exposición a Riesgos Ambientales , Diseño de Equipo , Fluorenos/análisis , Humanos , Naftalenos/análisis , Naftalenos/química , Plantas/metabolismo , Pirenos/análisis , Pirenos/química , Factores de TiempoRESUMEN
The unregulated emissions from two in-use heavy-duty transit buses fueled by compressed natural gas (CNG) and equipped with oxidation catalyst (OxiCat) control were evaluated. We tested emissions from a transit bus powered by a 2001 Cummins Westport C Gas Plus 8.3-L engine (CWest), which meets the California Air Resources Board's (CARB) 2002 optional NOx standard (2.0 g/bhp-hr). In California, this engine is certified only with an OxiCat, so our study did not include emissions testing without it. We also tested a 2000 New Flyer 40-passenger low-floor bus powered by a Detroit Diesel series 50G engine (DDCs50G) that is currently certified in California without an OxiCat. The original equipment manufacturer (OEM) offers a "low-emission" package for this bus that includes an OxiCat for transit bus applications, thus, this configuration was also tested in this study. Previously, we reported that formaldehyde and other volatile organic emissions detected in the exhaust of the DDCs50G bus equipped with an OxiCat were significantly reduced relative to the same DDCs50G bus without OxiCat. In this paper, we examine othertoxic unregulated emissions of significance. The specific mutagenic activity of emission sample extracts was examined using the microsuspension assay. The total mutagenic activity of emissions (activity per mile) from the OxiCat-equipped DDC bus was generally lower than that from the DDC bus without the OxiCat. The CWest bus emission samples had mutagenic activity that was comparable to that of the OxiCat-equipped DDC bus. In general, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) emissions were lower forthe OxiCat-equipped buses, with greater reductions observed for the volatile and semivolatile PAH emissions. Elemental carbon (EC) was detected in the exhaust from the all three bus configurations, and we found that the total carbon (TC) composition of particulate matter (PM) emissions was primarily organic carbon (OC). The amount of carbon emissions far exceeded the PM-associated inorganic element emissions, which were detected in all exhaust samples, at comparatively small emission rates. In summary, based on these results and those referenced from our group, the use of OxiCat for the new CWest engine and as a retrofit option for the DDCs50G engine generally results in the reduction of tailpipe toxic emissions. However, the conclusions of this study do not take into account OxiCat durability, deterioration, lubricant consumption, or vehicle maintenance, and these parameters merit further study.
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Contaminantes Atmosféricos/análisis , Contaminantes Atmosféricos/toxicidad , Combustibles Fósiles/análisis , Vehículos a Motor , Emisiones de Vehículos/análisis , California , Carbono/análisis , Carbono/química , Catálisis , Exposición por Inhalación , Compuestos Orgánicos/análisis , Compuestos Orgánicos/toxicidad , Oxidación-Reducción , Tamaño de la Partícula , Hidrocarburos Policíclicos Aromáticos/análisis , Hidrocarburos Policíclicos Aromáticos/toxicidad , Emisiones de Vehículos/toxicidadRESUMEN
The number of heavy-duty vehicles using alternative fuels such as compressed natural gas (CNG) and new low-sulfur diesel fuel formulations and equipped with after-treatment devices are projected to increase. However, few peer-reviewed studies have characterized the emissions of particulate matter (PM) and other toxic compounds from these vehicles. In this study, chemical and biological analyses were used to characterize the identifiable toxic air pollutants emitted from both CNG and low-sulfur-diesel-fueled heavy-duty transit buses tested on a chassis dynamometer over three transient driving cycles and a steady-state cruise condition. The CNG bus had no after-treatment, and the diesel bus was tested first equipped with an oxidation catalyst (OC) and then with a catalyzed diesel particulate filter (DPF). Emissions were analyzed for PM, volatile organic compounds (VOCs; determined on-site), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and mutagenic activity. The 2000 model year CNG-fueled vehicle had the highest emissions of 1,3-butadiene, benzene, and carbonyls (e.g., formaldehyde) of the three vehicle configurations tested in this study. The 1998 model year diesel bus equipped with an OC and fueled with low-sulfur diesel had the highest emission rates of PM and PAHs. The highest specific mutagenic activities (revertants/microg PM, or potency) and the highest mutagen emission rates (revertants/mi) were from the CNG bus in strain TA98 tested over the New York Bus (NYB) driving cycle. The 1998 model year diesel bus with DPF had the lowest VOCs, PAH, and mutagenic activity emission. In general, the NYB driving cycle had the highest emission rates (g/mi), and the Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule (UDDS) had the lowest emission rates for all toxics tested over the three transient test cycles investigated. Also, transient emissions were, in general, higher than steady-state emissions. The emissions of toxic compounds from an in-use CNG transit bus (without an oxidation catalyst) and from a vehicle fueled with low-sulfur diesel fuel (equipped with DPF) were lower than from the low-sulfur diesel fueled vehicle equipped with OC. All vehicle configurations had generally lower emissions of toxics than an uncontrolled diesel engine. Tunnel backgrounds (measurements without the vehicle running) were measured throughout this study and were helpful in determining the incremental increase in pollutant emissions. Also, the on-site determination of VOCs, especially 1,3-butadiene, helped minimize measurement losses due to sample degradation after collection.
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Contaminantes Atmosféricos/análisis , Monitoreo del Ambiente/estadística & datos numéricos , Combustibles Fósiles , Vehículos a Motor , Hidrocarburos Policíclicos Aromáticos/análisis , Emisiones de Vehículos/análisis , Contaminantes Atmosféricos/toxicidad , Bacterias/efectos de los fármacos , Bioensayo , Daño del ADN , Cromatografía de Gases y Espectrometría de Masas , Pruebas de Mutagenicidad , Tamaño de la Partícula , Hidrocarburos Policíclicos Aromáticos/toxicidad , Emisiones de Vehículos/toxicidadRESUMEN
Dynamic measures of air and vegetation concentrations in an exposure chamber and a two-box mass balance model are used to quantify factors that control the rate and extent of chemical partitioning between vegetation and the atmosphere. A continuous stirred flow-through exposure chamber was used to investigate the gas-phase transfer of pollutants between air and plants. A probabilistic two-compartment mass balance model of plant/air exchange within the exposure chamber was developed and used with measured concentrations from the chamber to simultaneously evaluate partitioning (Kpa), overall mass transfer across the plant/air interface (Upa), and loss rates in the atmosphere (Ra) and aboveground vegetation (Rp). The approach is demonstrated using mature Capsicum annuum (bell pepper) plants exposed to phenanthrene (PH), anthracene (AN), fluoranthene (FL) and pyrene (PY). Measured values of log Kpa (V[air]/V[fresh plant]) were 5.7, 5.7, 6.0, and 6.2 for PH, AN, FL, and PY, respectively. Values of Upa (m d(-1)) under the conditions of this study ranged from 42 for PH to 119 for FL. After correcting for wall effects, the estimated reaction half-lives in air were 3, 9, and 25 h for AN, FL and PY. Reaction half-lives in the plant compartment were 17, 6, 17, and 5 d for PH, AN, FL, and PY, respectively. The combined use of exposure chamber measurements and models provides a robust tool for simultaneously measuring several different transfer factors that are important for modeling the uptake of pollutants into vegetation.