Trends in retail sales of insecticide-treated nets and untreated nets in Tanzania: cross-section surveys.

BACKGROUND: The commercial sector plays a vital role in mosquito net ownership and access in Tanzania. The National Malaria Strategic Plan (NMSP) includes long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLIN) delivery through the commercial sector as a complementary mechanism. The NMSP aims to increase LLIN sales while decreasing untreated mosquito net sales. This survey aimed to track quantities, market share of different net categories, prices, and origins of mosquito nets in retail markets and to engage stakeholders to analyse market trends. METHODS: This mixed-method mosquito net retail outlet survey was conducted in mid-2021 in six and in mid-2022 in eight regions. Field teams identified net-selling outlets in major urban and peri-urban markets and used snowball sampling to identify additional outlets. A structured questionnaire was used, and photos of available mosquito net products were taken. Key informant interviews were conducted with wholesalers and retailers. The relative market share of a product was calculated by using the mean of each sales category as frequency weights. Qualitative data analysis was undertaken by summarizing common themes and observations based on the research question. RESULTS: A total of 394 and 1139 outlets were surveyed in 2021 and 2022, respectively. More than 96% of distributed brands in both years were untreated nets. The market share for untreated mosquito nets was 99.2% in 2021 and 88.3% in 2022. Bed net sales were seasonal, peaking in the rainy season and at the start of the school year. Leaked LLINs from the public sector comprised 0.3% of the market share in 2021 and 8.3% in 2022. Kigoma markets had the most significant frequency of leaked LLIN products. Legitimate LLINs were rare in 2021 (n = 2) and not found in 2022, despite the presence of a local LLIN manufacturer. A small number (n = 3) of untreated nets fabricated in China claiming to be LLINs were observed in 2022. CONCLUSIONS: Despite NMCP's strategic approach to increasing retail market share for legitimate LLINs, significant challenges remain. Efforts are needed to change the current situation given the context of large-scale public sector distributions of LLINs, the higher consumer cost of LLINs, the lack of bed net varieties. Improvement of registration process is recommended.

Estimating population ITN access at council level in Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Since 2013, the National Malaria Control Programme in mainland Tanzania and the Zanzibar Malaria Elimination Programme have implemented mass insecticide-treated net (ITN) distribution campaigns, routine ITN distribution to pregnant women and infants, and continuous distribution through primary schools (mainland) and community leaders (Zanzibar) to further malaria control efforts. Mass campaigns are triggered when ITN access falls below 40%. In this context, there is a need to monitor ITN access annually to assess whether it is below threshold and inform quantification of ITNs for the following year. Annual estimates of access are needed at the council level to inform programmatic decision-making. METHODS: An age-structured stock and flow model was used to predict annual net crops from council-level distribution data in Tanzania from 2012 to 2020 parameterized with a Tanzania-specific net median lifespan of 2.15 years. Annual nets-per-capita (NPC) was calculated by dividing each annual net crop by mid-year council projected population. A previously fit nonparametric conditional quantile function for the proportion of the population with access to an ITN (ITN access) as a function of NPC was used to predict ITN access at the council level based on the predicted NPC value. These estimates were compared to regional-level ITN access from large household surveys. RESULTS: For regions with the same ITN strategy for all councils, predicted council-level ITN access was consistent with regional-level survey data for 79% of councils. Regions where ITN strategy varied by council had regional estimates of ITN access that diverged from the council-specific estimates. Predicted ITN access reached 60% only when "nets issued as a percentage of the council population" (NPP) exceeded 15%, and approached 80% ITN access when NPP was at or above 20%. CONCLUSION: Modelling ITN access with country-specific net decay rates, council-level population, and ITN distribution data is a promising approach to monitor ITN coverage sub-regionally and between household surveys in Tanzania and beyond.

Antenatal corticosteroid therapy, delivery intervals and perinatal mortality in low-resource settings.

BACKGROUND: Uncertainty exists regarding the ideal interval between the administration of antenatal corticosteroids (ACS) and delivery. The study's objective was to assess the risks of perinatal mortality and respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) among preterm neonates whose mothers gave birth within 48 h of the administration of ACS and those whose mothers gave birth between 48 h and 7 days. METHODS: The study design was a secondary analysis of data from an observational prospective chart review study that was carried out in Tanzania in 2020. Preterm infants born to mothers who got at least one dose of ACS between 28 and 34 weeks of pregnancy were included. RESULTS: A total of 346 preterm neonates (294 singletons and 52 twins) were exposed to ACS. Compared to infants born 48 h following the first dose of ACS, those exposed to the drug between 48 h and 7 days had significantly decreased rates of perinatal mortality and RDS. Multivariable analysis revealed that infants exposed ACS between 48 h and 7 days prior to delivery had lower risk of perinatal mortality (aRR 0.30, 95% CI 0.14-0.66) and RDS (aRR 0.27, 95% CI 0.14-0.52). CONCLUSION: The first dose of ACS given between 48 h and 7 days before delivery was associated with a lower risk of perinatal mortality and RDS than when the first dose was given <48 h before delivery. To improve neonatal outcomes, healthcare providers should consider administering ACS to mothers at the appropriate time.

Preterm infants exposed to antenatal corticosteroids (ACS) have lower rates of perinatal mortality and morbidity. Uncertainty exists regarding the ideal interval between the administration of ACS and delivery. We conducted a secondary analysis of data from a study that included preterm infants born in four hospitals in Tanzania. We investigated whether there were differences in perinatal mortality and respiratory distress syndrome between preterm neonates whose mothers delivered within 48 h of receiving a partial course of ACS and those whose mothers delivered between 48 h and 7 days after a full course of ACS therapy. Participants were the preterm infants of women who received ACS between 28 and 34 weeks of gestation. Neonates exposed to ACS between 48 h and 7 days prior to delivery had significantly lower risks of perinatal mortality and respiratory distress syndrome compared to infants who were delivered <48 h after ACS administration. This finding highlights the importance of optimizing the timing of ACS administration to maximize its potential benefits and minimize risks to preterm neonates. To improve neonatal outcomes, healthcare providers should consider administering ACS to mothers at the appropriate time.

Annual distributions of insecticide-treated nets to schoolchildren and other key populations to maintain higher ITN access than with mass campaigns: a modelling study for mainland Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Since 2013, the National Malaria Control Programme in mainland Tanzania has deployed annual distributions of insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) through primary schools to maintain ITN access and use. This School Net Programme (SNP) is slated to be used throughout mainland Tanzania by 2023. This modelling study projects ITN access under different ITN distribution strategies and quantification approaches. METHODS: A stock and flow model with a Tanzania-specific ITN decay rate was used to calculate annual net crops for four different ITN distribution strategies, varying quantification approaches within each strategy. Annual nets-per-capita (NPC) was derived from net crop and a standardized population projection. Nonparametric conditional quartile functions for the proportion of the population with access to an ITN (ITN access) as a function of NPC were used to predict ITN access and its variability. The number of ITNs required under the varying quantification approaches for the period 2022-2030 was calculated. RESULTS: Annual SNP quantified using a "population times 15%" approach maintained ITN access between 80 and 90%, when combined with reproductive and child health (RCH) ITN distribution, requiring 133.2 million ITNs. The same strategy quantified with "population times 22%" maintained ITN access at or above 90%, requiring 175.5 million ITNs. Under 5-year mass campaigns with RCH distribution for pregnant women and infants, ITN access reached 90% post-campaign and fell to 27-35% in the 4th year post-campaign, requiring 120.5 million ITNs over 8 years. 3-yearly mass campaigns with RCH reached 100% ITN access post-campaign and fell to 70% in the 3rd year post-campaign, requiring 154.4 million ITNs. CONCLUSION: Given an ITN retention time in Tanzania of 2.15 years, the model predicts that mass campaigns conducted every 3 years in mainland Tanzania will not maintain ITN access at target levels of 80%, even with strong RCH channels. Mainland Tanzania can however expect to maintain ITN access at 80% or above by quantifying SNP using "population × 15%", in addition to RCH ITN delivery. This strategy requires 14% fewer ITNs than a 3-year campaign strategy while providing more consistent ITN coverage. Meeting the targets of 80% ITN use would require maintaining 90% ITN access, achievable using a "population times 22%" quantification approach for SNP.

Estimation of bed net coverage indicators in Tanzania using mobile phone surveys: a comparison of sampling approaches.

BACKGROUND: Threats to maintaining high population access with effective bed nets persist due to errors in quantification, bed net wear and tear, and inefficiencies in distribution activities. Monitoring bed net coverage is therefore critical, but usually occurs every 2-3 years through expensive, large-scale household surveys. Mobile phone-based survey methodologies are emerging as an alternative to household surveys and can provide rapid estimates of coverage, however, little research on varied sampling approaches has been conducted in sub-Saharan Africa. METHODS: A nationally and regionally representative cross-sectional mobile phone survey was conducted in early 2021 in Tanzania with focus on bed net ownership and access. Half the target sample was contacted through a random digit dial methodology (n = 3500) and the remaining half was reached through a voluntary opt-in respondent pool (n = 3500). Both sampling approaches used an interactive voice response survey. Standard RBM-MERG bed net indicators and AAPOR call metrics were calculated. In addition, the results of the two sampling approaches were compared. RESULTS: Population access (i.e., the percent of the population that could sleep under a bed net, assuming one bed net per two people) varied from a regionally adjusted low of 48.1% (Katavi) to a high of 65.5% (Dodoma). The adjusted percent of households that had a least one bed net ranged from 54.8% (Pemba) to 75.5% (Dodoma); the adjusted percent of households with at least one bed net per 2 de facto household population ranged from 35.9% (Manyara) to 55.7% (Dodoma). The estimates produced by both sampling approaches were generally similar, differing by only a few percentage points. An analysis of differences between estimates generated from the two sampling approaches showed minimal bias when considering variation across the indicator for households with at least one bed net per two de facto household population. CONCLUSION: The results generated by this survey show that overall bed net access in the country appears to be lower than target thresholds. The results suggest that bed net distribution is needed in large sections of the country to ensure that coverage levels remain high enough to sustain protection against malaria for the population.

Fetal heart rate development during labour.

BACKGROUND: Fresh stillbirths (FSB) and very early neonatal deaths (VEND) are important global challenges with 2.6 million deaths annually. The vast majority of these deaths occur in low- and low-middle income countries. Assessment of the fetal well-being during pregnancy, labour, and birth is normally conducted by monitoring the fetal heart rate (FHR). The heart rate of newborns is reported to increase shortly after birth, but a corresponding trend in how FHR changes just before birth for normal and adverse outcomes has not been studied. In this work, we utilise FHR measurements collected from 3711 labours from a low and low-middle income country to study how the FHR changes towards the end of the labour. The FHR development is also studied in groups defined by the neonatal well-being 24 h after birth. METHODS: A signal pre-processing method was applied to identify and remove time periods in the FHR signal where the signal is less trustworthy. We suggest an analysis framework to study the FHR development using the median FHR of all measured heart rates within a 10-min window. The FHR trend is found for labours with a normal outcome, neonates still admitted for observation and perinatal mortality, i.e. FSB and VEND. Finally, we study how the spread of the FHR changes over time during labour. RESULTS: When studying all labours, there is a drop in median FHR from 134 beats per minute (bpm) to 119 bpm the last 150 min before birth. The change in FHR was significant ([Formula: see text]) using Wilcoxon signed-rank test. A drop in median FHR as well as an increased spread in FHR is observed for all defined outcome groups in the same interval. CONCLUSION: A significant drop in FHR the last 150 min before birth is seen for all neonates with a normal outcome or still admitted to the NCU at 24 h after birth. The observed earlier and larger drop in the perinatal mortality group may indicate that they struggle to endure the physical strain of labour, and that an earlier intervention could potentially save lives. Due to the low amount of data in the perinatal mortality group, a larger dataset is required to validate the drop for this group.

SaferBirths bundle of care protocol: a stepped-wedge cluster implementation project in 30 public health-facilities in five regions, Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: The burden of stillbirth, neonatal and maternal deaths are unacceptably high in low- and middle-income countries, especially around the time of birth. There are scarce resources and/or support implementation of evidence-based training programs. SaferBirths Bundle of Care is a well-proven package of innovative tools coupled with data-driven on-the-job training aimed at reducing perinatal and maternal deaths. The aim of this project is to determine the effect of scaling up the bundle on improving quality of intrapartum care and perinatal survival. METHODS: The project will follow a stepped-wedge cluster implementation design with well-established infrastructures for data collection, management, and analysis in 30 public health facilities in regions in Tanzania. Healthcare workers from selected health facilities will be trained in basic neonatal resuscitation, essential newborn care and essential maternal care. Foetal heart rate monitors (Moyo), neonatal heart rate monitors (NeoBeat) and skills trainers (NeoNatalie Live) will be introduced in the health facilities to facilitate timely identification of foetal distress during labour and improve neonatal resuscitation, respectively. Heart rate signal-data will be automatically collected by Moyo and NeoBeat, and newborn resuscitation training by NeoNatalie Live. Given an average of 4000 baby-mother pairs per year per health facility giving an estimate of 240,000 baby-mother pairs for a 2-years duration, 25% reduction in perinatal mortality at a two-sided significance level of 5%, intracluster correlation coefficient (ICC) to be 0.0013, the study power stands at 0.99. DISCUSSION: Previous reports from small-scale Safer Births Bundle implementation studies show satisfactory uptake of interventions with significant improvements in quality of care and lives saved. Better equipped and trained birth attendants are more confident and skilled in providing care. Additionally, local data-driven feedback has shown to drive continuous quality of care improvement initiatives, which is essential to increase perinatal and maternal survival. Strengths of this research project include integration of innovative tools with existing national guidelines, local data-driven decision-making and training. Limitations include the stepwise cluster implementation design that may lead to contamination of the intervention, and/or inability to address the shortage of healthcare workers and medical supplies beyond the project scope. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Name of Trial Registry: ISRCTN Registry. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: ISRCTN30541755 . Date of Registration: 12/10/2020. Type of registration: Prospectively Registered.

"Protect Your Loved Ones From Fataki": Discouraging Cross-Generational Sex in Tanzania.

The Fataki campaign aired in Tanzania via radio from 2008 to 2011 to address cross-generational sex, a major driver of HIV in the region. The campaign sought to incite social disapproval of men who engage in such relationships, generate dialogue around the issue, and encourage community interventions in these relationships through social learning. Using qualitative methods, we explored campaign reactions, use of the term Fataki to describe men in relationships with much younger women, and the nature of discussions spurred by the campaign. We conducted focus group discussions and individual interviews in Iringa and Pwani regions with young women, older men, and community leaders. Results showed that the Fataki term was widely used and had negative connotations reflecting social disapproval of men who participate in such relationships. Dialogue spurred by the campaign, primarily directed toward young women, focused on reasons for avoiding these relationships. We conclude with suggestions for relevant future interventions.

An assessment of HIV testing in Tanzania to inform future strategies and interventions.

This study identified characteristics of Tanzanians who have never tested for HIV in order to inform localized interventions to increase HIV testing coverage and uptake. A total of 3257 randomly selected participants aged 18-49 years were surveyed in 16 Mainland regions. Those surveyed were asked about demographics, HIV risk perception, HIV testing behavior, knowledge of both their own and partner's HIV status, and if they were tested with their partner. Approximately 22% of women and 46% of men reported never testing for HIV, with those who are younger (18-24 years), single/never married, living in rural areas, less educated, and having multiple sexual partners in the past year less likely to have tested. The gender differences in HIV testing behavior identified are supported by existing research. No association was found in either gender between HIV risk perception and testing, however, those least likely to test were those with multiple sex partners. These findings can help better target localized interventions focused on younger, single people, and those with multiple sex partners.

Improvements in Obstetric and Newborn Health Information Documentation following the Implementation of the Safer Births Bundle of Care at 30 Facilities in Tanzania.

This paper examines changes in the completeness of documentation in clinical practice before and during the implementation of the Safer Births Bundle of Care (SBBC) project. This observational study enrolled parturient women with a gestation age of at least 28 weeks at the onset of labour. Data collectors extracted information from facility registers and then a central data manager summarised and reported weekly statistics. Variables of clinical significance for CQI were selected, and the proportion of non-documentation was analysed over time. A Pearson chi-square test was used to test for significant differences in non-documentation between the periods. Between 1 March 2021 and 31 July 2022, a total of 138,442 deliveries were recorded. Overall, 75% of all patient cases had at least one missing variable among the selected variables across both periods. A lack of variable documentation occurred more frequently at the district hospital level (81% of patient cases) and health centres (74%) than at regional referral hospitals (56%) (p < 0.001). Non-documentation decreased significantly from 79% to 70% after the introduction of the SBBC (p < 0.001). A tendency towards negative correlations was noted for most variables. We noted an increased attention to data quality and use which may have a positive impact on the completeness of documentation. However, halfway through the project's implementation, the completeness of documentation was still low. Our findings support the recommendation to establish short-spaced feedback loops of locally collected data using one data platform.

Effects of the Fataki campaign: addressing cross-generational sex in Tanzania by mobilizing communities to intervene.

The national multimedia "Fataki" campaign aired in Tanzania from 2008 to 2011 with the goal of addressing cross-generational sex (CGS) by mobilizing communities to intervene in CGS relationships. A cross-sectional household survey was used to evaluate the campaign. Logistic regression analysis found a dose-response relationship between campaign exposure and interpersonal communication about CGS, intervening in CGS relationships, and lower CGS engagement among women. No association was found between campaign exposure and current CGS involvement among men, though longer-term data collection may be needed to assess changes in relationship patterns. Findings indicated that engaging in interpersonal communication about CGS was associated with a higher likelihood of actually intervening. Strategies to generate further discussion surrounding CGS and increase impact, such as through community-based components to supplement campaigns, are discussed.

"Safer Births Bundle of Care" Implementation and Perinatal Impact at 30 Hospitals in Tanzania-Halfway Evaluation.

Safer Births Bundle of Care (SBBC) consists of innovative clinical and training tools for improved labour care and newborn resuscitation, integrated with new strategies for continuous quality improvement. After implementation, we hypothesised a reduction in 24-h newborn deaths, fresh stillbirths, and maternal deaths by 50%, 20%, and 10%, respectively. This is a 3-year stepped-wedged cluster randomised implementation study, including 30 facilities within five regions in Tanzania. Data collectors at each facility enter labour and newborn care indicators, patient characteristics and outcomes. This halfway evaluation reports data from March 2021 through July 2022. In total, 138,357 deliveries were recorded; 67,690 pre- and 70,667 post-implementations of SBBC. There were steady trends of increased 24-h newborn and maternal survival in four regions after SBBC initiation. In the first region, with 13 months of implementation (n = 15,658 deliveries), an estimated additional 100 newborns and 20 women were saved. Reported fresh stillbirths seemed to fluctuate across time, and increased in three regions after the start of SBBC. Uptake of the bundle varied between regions. This SBBC halfway evaluation indicates steady reductions in 24-h newborn and maternal mortality, in line with our hypotheses, in four of five regions. Enhanced focus on uptake of the bundle and the quality improvement component is necessary to fully reach the SBBC impact potential as we move forward.

Healthcare Workers' Perceptions on the "SaferBirths Bundle of Care": A Qualitative Study.

Background: SaferBirths Bundle of Care (SBBC) is a package of innovative clinical and training tools coupled with low-dose high-frequency simulation-based on-job training guided by local data. This bundle of care is a new initiative being implemented in 30 health facilities from five regions of Tanzania aiming at improving birth outcomes. Objective: To assess the perception of healthcare workers and facility leaders on the "SaferBirths Bundle of Care" towards saving women's and newborns' lives at birth. Method: We used a qualitative approach using focused group discussion (FGD) and individual interviews. A total of 21 FGD and 43 individual interviews were conducted between August and November 2022. In total, 94 midwives and 12 doctors were involved, some of whom were in leadership roles. The framework method for the analysis of qualitative data was used for analysis. Results: Healthcare workers and facility leaders received the bundle well and regarded it as effective in saving lives and improving healthcare provision. Five themes emerged as facilitators to the acceptance of the bundle: (1) the bundle is appropriate to our needs, (2) the training modality and data use fit our context, (3) use of champions and periodic mentorship, (4) learning from our mistakes, and (5) clinical and training tools are of high quality but can be further improved. Conclusion: The relevance of SaferBirths Bundle of Care in addressing maternal and perinatal deaths, the quality and modality of training, and the culture that enhances learning from mistakes were among the facilitators of the acceptability of the SBBC. A well-accepted intervention has huge potential for bringing the intended impact in health provision.

Association between antenatal corticosteroids use and perinatal mortality among preterm singletons and twins in Mwanza, Tanzania: an observational study.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the association between antenatal corticosteroids (ACS) use and perinatal mortality in singletons and twins delivered before 35 weeks of gestation. DESIGN: Secondary analysis of data from an observational prospective chart review study that investigated if exposure to ACS was associated with lower rates of perinatal mortality in preterm infants. SETTING: This study was conducted in four hospitals located in Mwanza region, Tanzania. PARTICIPANTS: The study population included all preterm singletons and twins delivered at these hospitals between 24 weeks 0 days and 34 weeks 6 days of gestation from July 2019 to February 2020. OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary outcome was perinatal mortality; the secondary outcome was respiratory distress syndrome (RDS). RESULTS: The study included 844 singletons and 210 twin infants. Three hundred and fourteen singletons (37.2%) and 52 twins (24.8%) were exposed to at least one dose of ACS. Adjusted multivariate analyses revealed that among singletons' exposure to ACS was significantly associated with a lower likelihood of perinatal mortality, adjusted relative risk (aRR) 0.30 (95% CI 0.22 to 0.40) and RDS, aRR 0.92 (95% CI 0.87 to 0.97). In twin infants, exposure to ACS was associated with a reduced risk of RDS only, aRR 0.87 (95% CI 0.78 to 0.98). CONCLUSION: The use of ACS between 24 weeks 0 days and 34 weeks 6 days of gestation in both singletons and twins in low-resource settings is associated with positive infant outcomes. No adverse effects were noted. Further research that examines the benefits of ACS for twin infants is needed.

Reducing neonatal mortality and respiratory distress syndrome associated with preterm birth: a scoping review on the impact of antenatal corticosteroids in low- and middle-income countries.

BACKGROUND: The most common cause of death among preterm infants in low- and middle-income countries is respiratory distress syndrome. The purpose of this review was to assess whether antenatal corticosteroids given to women at risk of preterm birth at ≤ 34 weeks of gestation reduce rates of neonatal mortality and respiratory distress syndrome in low- and middle-income countries. METHODS: Two reviewers independently searched four databases including MEDLINE (through PubMed), CINAHL, Embase, and Cochrane Libraries. We did not apply any language or date restrictions. All publications up to April 2020 were included in this search. RESULTS: The search yielded 71 articles, 10 of which were included in this review (3 randomized controlled trials, 7 observational studies, 36,773 neonates). The majority of studies reported associations between exposure to antenatal corticosteroids and lower rates of neonatal mortality and respiratory distress syndrome. However, a few studies reported that antenatal corticosteroids were not associated with improved preterm birth outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Most of the studies in low- and middle-income countries showed that use of antenatal corticosteroids in hospitals with high levels of neonatal care was associated with lower rates of neonatal mortality and respiratory distress syndrome. However, the findings are inconclusive because some studies in low-resource settings reported that antenatal corticosteroids had no benefit in reducing rates of neonatal mortality or respiratory distress syndrome. Further research on the impact of antenatal corticosteroids in resource-limited settings in low-income countries is a priority.

Association between antenatal corticosteroid use and perinatal mortality among preterm births in hospitals in Tanzania.

OBJECTIVES: The primary aims of this study were to investigate if exposure to antenatal corticosteroids (ACS) was associated with lower rates of perinatal mortality (primary outcome) and other adverse perinatal outcomes (i.e., stillbirth, early neonatal mortality, APGAR score of < 7 at 5 mins, neonatal sepsis and respiratory distress syndrome) in preterm infants in hospitals in Tanzania. We also examine factors associated with administration of ACS among women at risk of preterm delivery. METHODS: A hospital-based prospective chart review study was undertaken in four hospitals located in Nyamagana and Sengerema districts, Tanzania. The study population included all stillborn and live born preterm infants delivered between 24 to 34 weeks of gestation between July 2019 to February 2020. A total 1125 preterm infants were delivered by 1008 women (895 singletons, 230 multiple). Sociodemographic and medical data were recorded from participants' medical records. RESULTS: Three hundred and fifty-six (35.3%) women were administered at least one dose of ACS between 24 to 34 weeks' gestation and 385 (34.2%) infants were exposed to ACS. Infants exposed to ACS had a lower rate of perinatal mortality (13.77%) compared to those who were not exposed (28.38%). Multivariate analysis indicated that infants exposed to ACS were less likely to die during perinatal period, aRR 0.34 (95%CI 0.26-0.44). Only one-third of the sample was provided with ACS. Administration of ACS was associated with maternal education, attending antenatal care more than 3 times, method used to assess gestational age, maternal infection, exposure to maternal antibiotics, delivery mode and level of health facility. CONCLUSION: ACS significantly reduced the risk in perinatal mortality among infants born preterm in a limited resource setting. However, only about one-third of eligible women were provided with ACS, indicating low usage of ACS. Numerous factors were associated with low usage of ACS in this setting.

Systematic review of Doppler for detecting intrapartum fetal heart abnormalities and measuring perinatal mortality in low- and middle-income countries.

BACKGROUND: Using Doppler to improve detection of intrapartum fetal heart rate (FHR) abnormalities coupled with appropriate, timely intrapartum care in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) can save lives. OBJECTIVE: To review studies using Doppler to improve detection of intrapartum FHR abnormalities and intrapartum care quality in LMIC health facilities. SEARCH STRATEGY: PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, Global Health, and Scopus were searched from inception to October 2018 by combining terms for Doppler, perinatal outcomes, and FHR monitoring. SELECTION CRITERIA: Selected studies compared Doppler and Pinard stethoscope for detecting/monitoring intrapartum FHR, or described provider and maternal preferences for FHR monitoring in LMIC settings. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two team members independently screened and collected data. Risk of bias was assessed by Cochrane EPOC criteria. RESULTS: Eleven studies from eight countries were included. Doppler was superior at detecting abnormal intrapartum FHR as compared with Pinard stethoscope, but was not associated with improved perinatal outcomes. Using Doppler on admission helped to accurately measure perinatal deaths occurring after facility admission. CONCLUSION: Studies and program learning are needed to translate improved detection of FHR abnormalities to improved case management in LMICs. Doppler should be used to calculate a facility indicator of intrapartum care quality. PROSPERO registration: CRD42019121924.

Effectiveness of a Novel Continuous Doppler (Moyo) Versus Intermittent Doppler in Intrapartum Detection of Abnormal Foetal Heart Rate: A Randomised Controlled Study in Tanzania.

Background: Intrapartum foetal heart rate (FHR) monitoring is crucial for identification of hypoxic foetuses and subsequent interventions. We compared continuous monitoring using a novel nine-crystal FHR monitor (Moyo) versus intermittent single crystal Doppler (Doppler) for the detection of abnormal FHR. Methods: An unmasked randomised controlled study was conducted in a tertiary hospital in Tanzania (ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02790554). A total of 2973 low-risk singleton pregnant women in the first stage of labour admitted with normal FHR were randomised to either Moyo (n = 1479) or Doppler (1494) arms. The primary outcome was the proportion of abnormal FHR detection. Secondary outcomes were time intervals in labour, delivery mode, Apgar scores, and perinatal outcomes. Results: Moyo detected abnormal FHR more often (13.3%) compared to Doppler (9.8%) (p = 0.002). Time intervals from admission to detection of abnormal FHR were 15% shorter in Moyo (p = 0.12) and from the detection of abnormal FHR to delivery was 36% longer in Moyo (p = 0.007) compared to the Doppler arm. Time from last FHR to delivery was 12% shorter with Moyo (p = 0.006) compared to Doppler. Caesarean section rates were higher with the Moyo device compared to Doppler (p = 0.001). Low Apgar scores (<7) at the 1st and 5th min were comparable between groups (p = 0.555 and p = 0.800). Perinatal outcomes (fresh stillbirths and 24-h neonatal deaths) were comparable at delivery (p = 0.497) and 24-h post-delivery (p = 0.345). Conclusions: Abnormal FHR detection rates were higher with Moyo compared to Doppler. Moyo detected abnormal FHR earlier than Doppler, but time from detection to delivery was longer. Studies powered to detect differences in perinatal outcomes with timely responses are recommended.

Predictors of low birth weight and 24-hour perinatal outcomes at Muhimbili National Hospital in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: a five-year retrospective analysis of obstetric records.

INTRODUCTION: The global prevalence of low birth weight (LBW) is 16%, representing more than 20 million infants worldwide, of which 96% are born in low-income countries. This study aimed to determine the prevalence, predictors and perinatal outcomes of LBW newborns. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective analysis of data obtained from the hospital's obstetric and neonatal database. Descriptive statistics and multivariate logistic regression were performed with 95% confidence intervals (CI). RESULTS: The prevalence of LBW was 21% (n = 8,011) and two-thirds of these were delivered at term. Seven percent of newborns were stillbirths and 2% died within 24hrs after birth. Logistic regression revealed that primigravida and grand multiparity were associated with LBW (OR: 1.25, 95%CI: 1.15-1.37; and OR: 1.21, 95%CI: 1.01-1.25, respectively). Having <4 antenatal care (ANC) visits was associated with increased odds of LBW (OR: 1.74, 95%CI: 1.59-1.87). Regression models revealed an independent association between LBW and increased odds of stillbirths (OR = 7.20, 95%CI 6.71-7.90), low Apgar score (OR = 3.42, 95%CI: 3.12-3.76) and early neonatal deaths (OR = 1.82, 95%CI: 1.51-2.19). CONCLUSION: The prevalence of LBW was high and was associated with extreme maternal age groups, grand multiparity, low maternal education, low number of ANC visits and obstetrics risks factors and complications. Both LBW and prematurity were independently associated with poor perinatal outcome. Future interventions should focus on improving the quality of ANC and integrating peripartum emergency obstetric and neonatal care.

Implementation of a novel continuous fetal Doppler (Moyo) improves quality of intrapartum fetal heart rate monitoring in a resource-limited tertiary hospital in Tanzania: An observational study.

BACKGROUND: Intrapartum Fetal Heart Rate (FHR) monitoring is crucial for the early detection of abnormal FHR, facilitating timely obstetric interventions and thus the potential reduction of adverse perinatal outcomes. We explored midwifery practices of intrapartum FHR monitoring pre and post implementation of a novel continuous automatic Doppler device (the Moyo). METHODOLOGY: A pre/post observational study among low-risk pregnancies at a tertiary hospital was conducted from March to December 2016. In the pre-implementation period, intermittent monitoring was conducted with a Pinard stethoscope (March to June 2016, n = 1640 women). In the post-implementation period, Moyo was used for continuous FHR monitoring (July-December 2016, n = 2442 women). The primary outcome was detection of abnormal FHR defined as absent, FHR<120or FHR>160bpm. The secondary outcomes were rates of assessment/documentation of FHR, obstetric time intervals and intrauterine resuscitations. Chi-square test, Fishers exact test, t-test and Mann-Whitney U test were used in bivariate analysis whereas binary and multinomial logistic regression were used for multivariate. RESULTS: Moyo use was associated with greater detection of abnormal FHR (8.0%) compared with Pinard (1.6%) (p<0.001). There were higher rates of non-assessment/documentation of FHR pre- (45.7%) compared to post-implementation (2.2%) (p<0.001). At pre-implementation, 8% of deliveries had FHR documented as often as ≤ 60 minutes, compared to 51% post-implementation (p<0.001). Implementation of continuous FHR monitoring was associated with a shorter time interval from the last FHR assessment to delivery i.e. median (IQR) of 60 (30,100) to 45 (21,85) minutes (p<0.001); and shorter time interval between each FHR assessment i.e. from 150 (86,299) minutes to 60 (41,86) minutes (p<0.001). Caesarean section rates increased from 2.6 to 5.4%, and vacuum deliveries from 2.2 to 5.8% (both p<0.001). Perinatal outcomes i.e. fresh stillbirths and early neonatal deaths were similar between time periods. The study was limited by both lack of randomization and involvement of low-risk pregnant women with fewer adverse perinatal outcomes than would be expected in a high-risk population. CONCLUSION: Implementation of the Moyo device, which continuously measures FHR, was associated with improved quality in FHR monitoring practices and the detection of abnormal FHR. These improvements led to more frequent and timely obstetric responses. Follow-up studies in a high-risk population focused on a more targeted description of the FHR abnormalities and the impact of intrauterine resuscitation is a critical next step in determining the effect on reducing perinatal mortality.