Conformational Rigidity and Protein Dynamics at Distinct Timescales Regulate PTP1B Activity and Allostery.

Protein function originates from a cooperation of structural rigidity, dynamics at different timescales, and allostery. However, how these three pillars of protein function are integrated is still only poorly understood. Here we show how these pillars are connected in Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase 1B (PTP1B), a drug target for diabetes and cancer that catalyzes the dephosphorylation of numerous substrates in essential signaling pathways. By combining new experimental and computational data on WT-PTP1B and ≥10 PTP1B variants in multiple states, we discovered a fundamental and evolutionarily conserved CH/π switch that is critical for positioning the catalytically important WPD loop. Furthermore, our data show that PTP1B uses conformational and dynamic allostery to regulate its activity. This shows that both conformational rigidity and dynamics are essential for controlling protein activity. This connection between rigidity and dynamics at different timescales is likely a hallmark of all enzyme function.

DEER-PREdict: Software for efficient calculation of spin-labeling EPR and NMR data from conformational ensembles.

Owing to their plasticity, intrinsically disordered and multidomain proteins require descriptions based on multiple conformations, thus calling for techniques and analysis tools that are capable of dealing with conformational ensembles rather than a single protein structure. Here, we introduce DEER-PREdict, a software program to predict Double Electron-Electron Resonance distance distributions as well as Paramagnetic Relaxation Enhancement rates from ensembles of protein conformations. DEER-PREdict uses an established rotamer library approach to describe the paramagnetic probes which are bound covalently to the protein.DEER-PREdict has been designed to operate efficiently on large conformational ensembles, such as those generated by molecular dynamics simulation, to facilitate the validation or refinement of molecular models as well as the interpretation of experimental data. The performance and accuracy of the software is demonstrated with experimentally characterized protein systems: HIV-1 protease, T4 Lysozyme and Acyl-CoA-binding protein. DEER-PREdict is open source (GPLv3) and available at github.com/KULL-Centre/DEERpredict and as a Python PyPI package pypi.org/project/DEERPREdict.

Dynamic activation and regulation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase p38.

Mitogen-activated protein kinases, which include p38, are essential for cell differentiation and autophagy. The current model for p38 activation involves activation-loop phosphorylation with subsequent substrate binding leading to substrate phosphorylation. Despite extensive efforts, the molecular mechanism of activation remains unclear. Here, using NMR spectroscopy, we show how the modulation of protein dynamics across timescales activates p38. We find that activation-loop phosphorylation does not change the average conformation of p38; rather it quenches the loop ps-ns dynamics. We then show that substrate binding to nonphosphorylated and phosphorylated p38 results in uniform µs-ms backbone dynamics at catalytically essential regions and across the entire molecule, respectively. Together, these results show that phosphorylation and substrate binding flatten the energy landscape of the protein, making essential elements of allostery and activation dynamically accessible. The high degree of structural conservation among ser/thr kinases suggests that elements of this mechanism may be conserved across the kinase family.

Random coil chemical shifts for serine, threonine and tyrosine phosphorylation over a broad pH range.

Phosphorylation is one of the main regulators of cellular signaling typically occurring in flexible parts of folded proteins and in intrinsically disordered regions. It can have distinct effects on the chemical environment as well as on the structural properties near the modification site. Secondary chemical shift analysis is the main NMR method for detection of transiently formed secondary structure in intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) and the reliability of the analysis depends on an appropriate choice of random coil model. Random coil chemical shifts and sequence correction factors were previously determined for an Ac-QQXQQ-NH2-peptide series with X being any of the 20 common amino acids. However, a matching dataset on the phosphorylated states has so far only been incompletely determined or determined only at a single pH value. Here we extend the database by the addition of the random coil chemical shifts of the phosphorylated states of serine, threonine and tyrosine measured over a range of pH values covering the pKas of the phosphates and at several temperatures (www.bio.ku.dk/sbinlab/randomcoil). The combined results allow for accurate random coil chemical shift determination of phosphorylated regions at any pH and temperature, minimizing systematic biases of the secondary chemical shifts. Comparison of chemical shifts using random coil sets with and without inclusion of the phosphoryl group, revealed under/over estimations of helicity of up to 33%. The expanded set of random coil values will improve the reliability in detection and quantification of transient secondary structure in phosphorylation-modified IDPs.

Diversity-Oriented Peptide Stapling: A Third Generation Copper-Catalysed Azide-Alkyne Cycloaddition Stapling and Functionalisation Strategy.

The introduction of macrocyclic constraints in peptides (peptide stapling) is an important tool within peptide medicinal chemistry for stabilising and pre-organising peptides in a desired conformation. In recent years, the copper-catalysed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) has emerged as a powerful method for peptide stapling. However, to date CuAAC stapling has not provided a simple method for obtaining peptides that are easily diversified further. In the present study, we report a new diversity-oriented peptide stapling (DOPS) methodology based on CuAAC chemistry. Stapling of peptides incorporating two azide-modified amino acids with 1,3,5-triethynylbenzene efficiently provides (i, i+7)- and (i, i+9)-stapled peptides with a single free alkyne positioned on the staple, which can be further conjugated or dimerised. A unique feature of the present method is that it provides easy access to radiolabelled stapled peptides by catalytic tritiation of the alkyne positioned on the staple.

Crystal structure of the FimD usher bound to its cognate FimC-FimH substrate.

Type 1 pili are the archetypal representative of a widespread class of adhesive multisubunit fibres in Gram-negative bacteria. During pilus assembly, subunits dock as chaperone-bound complexes to an usher, which catalyses their polymerization and mediates pilus translocation across the outer membrane. Here we report the crystal structure of the full-length FimD usher bound to the FimC-FimH chaperone-adhesin complex and that of the unbound form of the FimD translocation domain. The FimD-FimC-FimH structure shows FimH inserted inside the FimD 24-stranded ß-barrel translocation channel. FimC-FimH is held in place through interactions with the two carboxy-terminal periplasmic domains of FimD, a binding mode confirmed in solution by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy. To accommodate FimH, the usher plug domain is displaced from the barrel lumen to the periplasm, concomitant with a marked conformational change in the ß-barrel. The amino-terminal domain of FimD is observed in an ideal position to catalyse incorporation of a newly recruited chaperone-subunit complex. The FimD-FimC-FimH structure provides unique insights into the pilus subunit incorporation cycle, and captures the first view of a protein transporter in the act of secreting its cognate substrate.

Probing the Solution Structure of IκB Kinase (IKK) Subunit γ and Its Interaction with Kaposi Sarcoma-associated Herpes Virus Flice-interacting Protein and IKK Subunit ß by EPR Spectroscopy.

Viral flice-interacting protein (vFLIP), encoded by the oncogenic Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpes virus (KSHV), constitutively activates the canonical nuclear factor κ-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) pathway. This is achieved through subversion of the IκB kinase (IKK) complex (or signalosome), which involves a physical interaction between vFLIP and the modulatory subunit IKKγ. Although this interaction has been examined both in vivo and in vitro, the mechanism by which vFLIP activates the kinase remains to be determined. Because IKKγ functions as a scaffold, recruiting both vFLIP and the IKKα/ß subunits, it has been proposed that binding of vFLIP could trigger a structural rearrangement in IKKγ conducive to activation. To investigate this hypothesis we engineered a series of mutants along the length of the IKKγ molecule that could be individually modified with nitroxide spin labels. Subsequent distance measurements using electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy combined with molecular modeling and molecular dynamics simulations revealed that IKKγ is a parallel coiled-coil whose response to binding of vFLIP or IKKß is localized twisting/stiffening and not large-scale rearrangements. The coiled-coil comprises N- and C-terminal regions with distinct registers accommodated by a twist: this structural motif is exploited by vFLIP, allowing it to bind and subsequently activate the NF-κB pathway. In vivo assays confirm that NF-κB activation by vFLIP only requires the N-terminal region up to the transition between the registers, which is located directly C-terminal of the vFLIP binding site.

FRETpredict: a Python package for FRET efficiency predictions using rotamer libraries.

Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) is a widely-used and versatile technique for the structural characterization of biomolecules. Here, we introduce FRETpredict, an easy-to-use Python software to predict FRET efficiencies from ensembles of protein conformations. FRETpredict uses a rotamer library approach to describe the FRET probes covalently bound to the protein. The software efficiently and flexibly operates on large conformational ensembles such as those generated by molecular dynamics simulations to facilitate the validation or refinement of molecular models and the interpretation of experimental data. We provide access to rotamer libraries for many commonly used dyes and linkers and describe a general methodology to generate new rotamer libraries for FRET probes. We demonstrate the performance and accuracy of the software for different types of systems: a rigid peptide (polyproline 11), an intrinsically disordered protein (ACTR), and three folded proteins (HiSiaP, SBD2, and MalE). FRETpredict is open source (GPLv3) and is available at github.com/KULL-Centre/FRETpredict and as a Python PyPI package at pypi.org/project/FRETpredict .

Loop interactions and dynamics tune the enzymatic activity of the human histone deacetylase 8.

The human histone deacetylase 8 (HDAC8) is a key hydrolase in gene regulation and has been identified as a drug target for the treatment of several cancers. Previously the HDAC8 enzyme has been extensively studied using biochemical techniques, X-ray crystallography, and computational methods. Those investigations have yielded detailed information about the active site and have demonstrated that the substrate entrance surface is highly dynamic. Yet it has remained unclear how the dynamics of the entrance surface tune and influence the catalytic activity of HDAC8. Using long time scale all atom molecular dynamics simulations we have found a mechanism whereby the interactions and dynamics of two loops tune the configuration of functionally important residues of HDAC8 and could therefore influence the activity of the enzyme. We subsequently investigated this hypothesis using a well-established fluorescence activity assay and a noninvasive real-time progression assay, where deacetylation of a p53 based peptide was observed by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Our work delivers detailed insight into the dynamic loop network of HDAC8 and provides an explanation for a number of experimental observations.

FRETpredict: A Python package for FRET efficiency predictions using rotamer libraries.

Here, we introduce FRETpredict, a Python software program to predict FRET efficiencies from ensembles of protein conformations. FRETpredict uses an established Rotamer Library Approach to describe the FRET probes covalently bound to the protein. The software efficiently operates on large conformational ensembles such as those generated by molecular dynamics simulations to facilitate the validation or refinement of molecular models and the interpretation of experimental data. We demonstrate the performance and accuracy of the software for different types of systems: a relatively structured peptide (polyproline 11), an intrinsically disordered protein (ACTR), and three folded proteins (HiSiaP, SBD2, and MalE). We also describe a general approach to generate new rotamer libraries for FRET probes of interest. FRETpredict is open source (GPLv3) and is available at github.com/KULL-Centre/FRETpredict and as a Python PyPI package at pypi.org/project/FRETpredict.

Accurate structure and dynamics of the metal-site of paramagnetic metalloproteins from NMR parameters using natural bond orbitals.

A natural bond orbital (NBO) analysis of unpaired electron spin density in metalloproteins is presented, which allows a fast and robust calculation of paramagnetic NMR parameters. Approximately 90% of the unpaired electron spin density occupies metal-ligand NBOs, allowing the majority of the density to be modeled by only a few NBOs that reflect the chemical bonding environment. We show that the paramagnetic relaxation rate of protons can be calculated accurately using only the metal-ligand NBOs and that these rates are in good agreement with corresponding rates measured experimentally. This holds, in particular, for protons of ligand residues where the point-dipole approximation breaks down. To describe the paramagnetic relaxation of heavy nuclei, also the electron spin density in the local orbitals must be taken into account. Geometric distance restraints for (15)N can be derived from the paramagnetic relaxation enhancement and the Fermi contact shift when local NBOs are included in the analysis. Thus, the NBO approach allows us to include experimental paramagnetic NMR parameters of (15)N nuclei as restraints in a structure optimization protocol. We performed a molecular dynamics simulation and structure determination of oxidized rubredoxin using the experimentally obtained paramagnetic NMR parameters of (15)N. The corresponding structures obtained are in good agreement with the crystal structure of rubredoxin. Thus, the NBO approach allows an accurate description of the geometric structure and the dynamics of metalloproteins, when NMR parameters are available of nuclei in the immediate vicinity of the metal-site.

A distal regulatory region of a class I human histone deacetylase.

Histone deacetylases (HDACs) are key enzymes in epigenetics and important drug targets in cancer biology. Whilst it has been established that HDACs regulate many cellular processes, far less is known about the regulation of these enzymes themselves. Here, we show that HDAC8 is allosterically regulated by shifts in populations between exchanging states. An inactive state is identified, which is stabilised by a range of mutations and resembles a sparsely-populated state in equilibrium with active HDAC8. Computational models show that the inactive and active states differ by small changes in a regulatory region that extends up to 28 Å from the active site. The regulatory allosteric region identified here in HDAC8 corresponds to regions in other class I HDACs known to bind regulators, thus suggesting a general mechanism. The presented results pave the way for the development of allosteric HDAC inhibitors and regulators to improve the therapy for several disease states.

Mechanism of Crosstalk between the LSD1 Demethylase and HDAC1 Deacetylase in the CoREST Complex.

The transcriptional corepressor complex CoREST is one of seven histone deacetylase complexes that regulate the genome through controlling chromatin acetylation. The CoREST complex is unique in containing both histone demethylase and deacetylase enzymes, LSD1 and HDAC1, held together by the RCOR1 scaffold protein. To date, it has been assumed that the enzymes function independently within the complex. Now, we report the assembly of the ternary complex. Using both structural and functional studies, we show that the activity of the two enzymes is closely coupled and that the complex can exist in at least two distinct states with different kinetics. Electron microscopy of the complex reveals a bi-lobed structure with LSD1 and HDAC1 enzymes at opposite ends of the complex. The structure of CoREST in complex with a nucleosome reveals a mode of chromatin engagement that contrasts with previous models.

Side chain to main chain hydrogen bonds stabilize a polyglutamine helix in a transcription factor.

Polyglutamine (polyQ) tracts are regions of low sequence complexity frequently found in transcription factors. Tract length often correlates with transcriptional activity and expansion beyond specific thresholds in certain human proteins is the cause of polyQ disorders. To study the structural basis of the association between tract length, transcriptional activity and disease, we addressed how the conformation of the polyQ tract of the androgen receptor, associated with spinobulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA), depends on its length. Here we report that this sequence folds into a helical structure stabilized by unconventional hydrogen bonds between glutamine side chains and main chain carbonyl groups, and that its helicity directly correlates with tract length. These unusual hydrogen bonds are bifurcate with the conventional hydrogen bonds stabilizing α-helices. Our findings suggest a plausible rationale for the association between polyQ tract length and androgen receptor transcriptional activity and have implications for establishing the mechanistic basis of SBMA.

Structural and biophysical investigation of the interaction of a mutant Grb2 SH2 domain (W121G) with its cognate phosphopeptide.

The adaptor protein Grb2 is a key element of mitogenetically important signaling pathways. With its SH2 domain it binds to upstream targets while its SH3 domains bind to downstream proteins thereby relaying signals from the cell membranes to the nucleus. The Grb2 SH2 domain binds to its targets by recognizing a phosphotyrosine (pY) in a pYxNx peptide motif, requiring an Asn at the +2 position C-terminal to the pY with the residue either side of this Asn being hydrophobic. Structural analysis of the Grb2 SH2 domain in complex with its cognate peptide has shown that the peptide adopts a unique ß-turn conformation, unlike the extended conformation that phosphopeptides adopt when bound to other SH2 domains. TrpEF1 (W121) is believed to force the peptide into this unusual conformation conferring this unique specificity to the Grb2 SH2 domain. Using X-ray crystallography, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy, and isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC), we describe here a series of experiments that explore the role of TrpEF1 in determining the specificity of the Grb2 SH2 domain. Our results demonstrate that the ligand does not adopt a pre-organized structure before binding to the SH2 domain, rather it is the interaction between the two that imposes the hairpin loop to the peptide. Furthermore, we find that the peptide adopts a similar structure when bound to both the wild-type Grb2 SH2 domain and a TrpEF1Gly mutant. This suggests that TrpEF1 is not the determining factor for the conformation of the phosphopeptide.

Manipulation of in vivo iron levels can alter resistance to oxidative stress without affecting ageing in the nematode C. elegans.

Iron-catalyzed generation of free radicals leads to molecular damage in vivo, and has been proposed to contribute to organismal ageing. Here we investigate the role of free iron in ageing in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Media supplementation with Fe(III) increased free iron levels in vivo, as detected by continuous-wave electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy and elevated expression of the iron-sensitive reporter transgene pftn-1::gfp. Increased free iron levels caused elevated levels of protein oxidation and hypersensitivity to tert-butyl hydroperoxide (t-BOOH) given 9 mM Fe(III) or greater, but 15 mM Fe(III) or greater was required to reduce lifespan. Treatment with either an iron chelator (deferoxamine) or over-expression of ftn-1, encoding the iron sequestering protein ferritin, increased resistance to t-BOOH and, in the latter case, reduced protein oxidation, but did not increase lifespan. Expression of ftn-1 is greatly increased in long-lived daf-2 insulin/IGF-1 receptor mutants. In this context, deletion of ftn-1 decreased t-BOOH resistance, but enhanced both daf-2 mutant longevity and constitutive dauer larva formation, suggesting an effect of ferritin on signaling. These results show that high levels of iron can increase molecular damage and reduce lifespan, but overall suggest that iron levels within the normal physiological range do not promote ageing in C. elegans.