Anchored Aluminum Catalyzed Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley Reduction at the Metal Nodes of Robust MOFs.

Catalytic Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley reductions of ketones and aldehydes in the presence of isopropyl alcohol were performed at aluminum alkoxide sites that were postsynthetically introduced into robust metal-organic frameworks (MOFs). The aluminum was anchored at the bridging hydroxyl sites inherent in some MOFs. MOFs in the UiO-66/67 family as well as DUT-5 were successfully adapted to this strategy. Incorporation of catalytically active aluminum species greatly enhanced the reactivity of the native MOF at 80 °C in the case of both UiO-66, and was almost solely responsible for catalytic activity in the case of metalated UiO-66 and DUT-5. The site isolation of the catalyst prevented aggregation and complete deactivation of the molecular aluminum catalyst, allowing it to be recovered and recycled in the case of UiO-67. This catalyst also proved to be moderately tolerant to wet isopropyl alcohol.

Evaluation of pharmacokinetic parameters and dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibition following single doses of sitagliptin in healthy, young Japanese males.

AIMS: Sitagliptin is a selective inhibitor of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) used to treat type 2 diabetes. The present aim was to evaluate pharmacokinetic (PK), pharmacodynamic (PD) and safety characteristics of sitagliptin following single doses in healthy, young Japanese males. METHODS: In this alternating two-panel, randomized, controlled double-blind study, six healthy Japanese male subjects (aged 20-46 years) in each panel received single oral doses of 5-400mg sitagliptin and two received placebo. Plasma and urine drug concentrations were measured from 0-48h post dose and plasma DPP-4 inhibition from 0-24h post dose. The results were compared with historical data from young, healthy non-Japanese males. RESULTS: Plasma concentrations of sitagliptin increased approximately in proportion to dose; maximum concentrations occurred 2-6h post-dose. The mean apparent terminal half-life for plasma sitagliptin was 9-14h, with the half-life slightly decreasing as the dose increased. The mean dose fraction excreted unchanged in the urine was 0.73-1.00. Ingestion of a traditional Japanese breakfast prior to dosing had only a minor effect on PK parameters. After correction for dilution and competition effects during assay, doses of sitagliptin ≥50mg resulted in weighted average DPP-4 inhibition from 0-24h post-dose >94% (without correction, >78%). No clinically meaningful differences in PK and DPP-4 inhibition parameters were found between Japanese and non-Japanese subjects. Sitagliptin was generally well tolerated and there were no serious adverse experiences or episodes of hypoglycaemia. CONCLUSIONS: The PK and PD findings from this study are consistent with once daily dosing of sitagliptin in Japanese patients with type 2 diabetes.

Comparative inhibitory activity of etoricoxib, celecoxib, and diclofenac on COX-2 versus COX-1 in healthy subjects.

We determined cyclo-oxygenase-1 and cyclo-oxygenase-2 inhibition in healthy middle-aged subjects (41-65 years) randomly assigned to four 7-day treatment sequences of etoricoxib 90 mg every day, celecoxib 200 mg twice a day, diclofenac 75 mg twice a day, or placebo in a double-blind, randomized, 4-period crossover study. Maximum inhibition of thromboxane B(2) (cyclo-oxygenase-1 activity) in clotting whole blood on day 7 (0-24 hours postdose) was the primary endpoint. Inhibition of lipopolysaccharide-induced prostaglandin E(2) in whole blood (cyclo-oxygenase-2 activity) was assessed on day 7 (0-24 hours postdose) as a secondary endpoint. Diclofenac had significantly greater maximum inhibition of thromboxane B(2) versus each comparator (P < .001); placebo 2.4% (95% confidence interval: -8.7% to 12.3%), diclofenac 92.2% (91.4% to 92.9%), etoricoxib 15.5% (6.6% to 23.5%), and celecoxib 20.2% (11.5% to 28.1%). Prostaglandin E(2) synthesis was inhibited with a rank order of potency of diclofenac > etoricoxib > celecoxib. In summary, at doses commonly used in rheumatoid arthritis, diclofenac significantly inhibits both cyclo-oxygenase-1 and cyclo-oxygenase-2, whereas etoricoxib and celecoxib significantly inhibit cyclo-oxygenase-2 and do not substantially inhibit cyclo-oxygenase-1.

On the Use of Group Sequential Study Designs for the Test of Bioequivalence for Complicated Products.

A novel modeling approach together with a use of group sequential study design for a complicated triple fixed-dose combination was attempted. Probability of success (POS) was used for determining a weighted average power, where weight was based on available information such as data from previous pilot studies or literature. A simulation study was conducted that resulted in the development of the necessary sample size for the studies in addition to identifying a decision algorithm that was prospectively defined in the protocols. Prospective inclusion of decision algorithms in the respective protocols facilitated a decision analytic approach to continuance or discontinuance of the product concept. Whereas the data suggested going to stage 2 was appropriate, the overall POS of meeting the equivalence requirements upon completion of the study were very low, leading to termination of the selected formulation concepts. The use of such novel designs for bioequivalence assessment can be applied for staged investments, particularly when there is uncertainty in formulation POS or when the pilot-scale pharmacokinetic studies are not likely to predict the final-scale pivotal studies.

Novel Gastroretentive Controlled Release Formulations for Once-Daily Administration: Assessment of Clinical Feasibility and Formulation Concept for Raltegravir.

BACKGROUND: Raltegravir is an integrase strand transfer inhibitor indicated in combination with other anti-retroviral medicinal products for the treatment of HIV-1 infection, given twice daily. Although a BCS class II compound, raltegravir exhibits low colonic absorption, thus making development of modified release formulations challenging. It was hypothesized that a gastroretentive (GR) formulation would increase trough (C24 h) concentrations of raltegravir, hence being amenable to a once-daily (QD) regimen. METHODS: Iterative prototype GR formulations were developed in monolithic, bilayer, and trilayer tablet designs. Four phase I studies in healthy subjects were conducted to provide proof of formulation concept. RESULTS: Raltegravir C24 h was increased by a GR formulation with scintigraphy data supporting gastric retention. Single-dose exposures from a trilayer tablet administered in the morning with a high-fat meal resulted in acceptable C24 h values. However, C24 h values for evening dosing with a high-fat meal did not meet the success criteria for QD administration. Raltegravir C24 h and area under the curve (AUC) values after AM dosing with a low-fat meal were significantly lower than after dosing with a moderate-fat meal. Skipping, delaying, or giving a low-fat, low-calorie lunch after dosing with a high-calorie breakfast also resulted in an unacceptable decline in C24 h values. The requirements for consistent product performance under varying conditions of diet, timing of dosing, and dose were not favorable when given as GR tablets. CONCLUSIONS: The findings from these studies offer valuable insights into modifying the absorption of candidate drugs with limiting colonic permeability and solubility characteristics and the interplay between meal, dose timing, and GR formulation performance.

Induction of adipocyte complement-related protein of 30 kilodaltons by PPARgamma agonists: a potential mechanism of insulin sensitization.

Adipocyte complement-related protein of 30 kDa (Acrp30, adiponectin, or AdipoQ) is a fat-derived secreted protein that circulates in plasma. Adipose tissue expression of Acrp30 is lower in insulin-resistant states and it is implicated in the regulation of in vivo insulin sensitivity. Here we have characterized the ability of PPARgamma agonists to modulate Acrp30 expression. After chronic treatment of obese-diabetic (db/db) mice with PPARgamma agonists (11 d), mean plasma Acrp30 protein levels increased (>3x). Similar effects were noted in a nongenetic type 2 diabetes model (fat-fed and low-dose streptozotocin-treated mice). In contrast, treatment of mice (db/db or fat-fed) with metformin or a PPARalpha agonist did not affect plasma Acrp30 protein levels. In a cohort of normal human subjects, 14-d treatment with rosiglitazone also produced a 130% increase in circulating Acrp30 levels vs. placebo. In addition, circulating Acrp30 levels were suppressed 5-fold in patients with severe insulin resistance in association with dominant-negative PPARgamma mutations. Thus, induction of adipose tissue Acrp30 expression and consequent increases in circulating Acrp30 levels represents a novel potential mechanism for PPARgamma-mediated enhancement of whole-body insulin sensitivity. Furthermore, Acrp30 is likely to be a biomarker of in vivo PPARgamma activation.

An evaluation of the dose-dependent inhibition of CYP1A2 by rofecoxib using theophylline as a CYP1A2 probe.

This study was undertaken to determine whether rofecoxib can interfere with CYP1A2 activity in humans using theophylline as a probe substrate. Single oral doses of theophylline were administered to each of three panels of 12 healthy subjects receiving daily doses of rofecoxib for 7 days to examine the effect of rofecoxib administration on the absorption and disposition of theophylline. Each panel was administered doses of 12.5, 25, or 50 mg of rofecoxib or a matching placebo in a two-way, randomized, crossover fashion and administered a single oral 300-mg dose of theophylline on day 7 of rofecoxib or placebo administration. Plasma concentrations of theophylline were monitored for 48 hours postdose to assess differences in pharmacokinetics. All three commercially marketed doses of rofecoxib were found to slow the clearance of theophylline with no detectable effect on absorption. CL/F values for theophylline were estimated from AUC infinity and by point estimates from the concentrations of drug in plasma at 12 and 24 hours postdose. The point estimates of CL/F were found to be in agreement with those derived from AUC.

Pharmacokinetics of etoricoxib in patients with hepatic impairment.

The effect of hepatic insufficiency on the pharmacokinetics of etoricoxib, a selective inhibitor of cyclooxygenase-2, was investigated following administration of single and multiple oral doses to mild hepatic insufficiency patients (Child-Pugh score of 5 to 6), multiple oral doses to moderate hepatic insufficiency patients (Child-Pugh score of 7 to 9), and single intravenous doses to both mild and moderate hepatic insufficiency patients. A trend of decreasing systemic clearance with increasing hepatic impairment was observed. Absorption of etoricoxib was unaffected by hepatic impairment. Binding of etoricoxib to plasma proteins was also found to be unaffected by hepatic disease. Etoricoxib was generally well tolerated by patients with mild and moderate hepatic insufficiency. Together, these results support a 60-mg once-daily dosing regimen for mild hepatic insufficiency patients and a 60-mg every-other-day dosing regimen for moderate hepatic insufficiency patients. There are no clinical or pharmacokinetic data in patients with severe hepatic insufficiency (Child-Pugh score > 9).

Pharmacokinetic evaluation of rofecoxib : comparison of tablet and suspension formulations.

OBJECTIVE: Rofecoxib suspension is a formulation developed to increase the convenience of rofecoxib therapy for patients who have difficulty swallowing tablets. This open-label, two-part study compared the single-dose pharmacokinetics of rofecoxib tablets and rofecoxib suspension in healthy subjects. DESIGN AND STUDY PARTICIPANTS: Part I was a two-period crossover study that assessed the bioequivalence of the 12.5mg/5mL rofecoxib suspension and the 12.5mg rofecoxib tablet in 24 healthy subjects (12 men and 12 women). Part II was a crossover study in 24 additional healthy subjects (12 men and 12 women) that determined the bioequivalence of the rofecoxib 25mg/5mL suspension and the 25mg rofecoxib tablet. RESULTS: No clinically meaningful differences between rofecoxib tablet and suspension were apparent with respect to the rofecoxib area under the concentration-time curve from time zero to infinity (AUC(0-infinity)) and maximum plasma concentration (C(max)), the primary measures of bioequivalence. At the 12.5mg and 25mg doses, the 90% CI for the geometric mean ratio (suspension/tablet) of both AUC(0-infinity) and C(max) fell within the prespecified interval for bioequivalence (0.80-1.25). CONCLUSIONS: The rofecoxib suspension is bioequivalent to the rofecoxib tablet at single oral doses of 12.5mg and 25mg in healthy volunteers. The convenience and ease of administration of rofecoxib suspension may translate into increased compliance with therapy compared with a conventional solid tablet formulation, particularly for elderly patients.

A microwave powered injectable neural stimulator.

An unexpectedly simple implantable device that can achieve wireless neurostimulation consists of a short 1 cm long dipole platinum wire antenna, a Schottky diode, and a pulsed microwave transmitter. Fabricated into a 1 cm long by polyimide tubing, the implant can have a sub-millimeter diameter form factor suited to introduction into tissue by injection. Experiments that chronically implant the device next to a rat sciatic nerve show that a 915 MHz microwave transmitter emitting an average power of 0.5 watts has an ability to stimulate motor events when spaced up to 7 cm from the body surface. Tissue models consisting of saline filled tanks show the possibility of delivering milliampere pulsed current to neurosimulators though 5 centimeters or more of tissue. Such a neurostimulation system driven by microwave energy is limited in functional tissue depth by microwave SAR exposure. This report discusses some of the advantages and limitations of such a neurostimulation approach.

Effect of different durations and formulations of diltiazem on the single-dose pharmacokinetics of midazolam: how long do we go?

Understanding how inhibition of cytochrome P4503A (CYP3A) affects the metabolism of a new drug is critical in determining if a clinically relevant drug interaction will occur. Diltiazem interaction studies assess a given compound's sensitivity to moderate CYP3A inhibition. The present study compared the effect different durations and formulations of diltiazem (extended release [XR] and conventional release [CR]) had on the single-dose pharmacokinetics of midazolam. The geometric mean ratio (GMR; midazolam + diltiazem(XR × 5 days)/midazolam + diltiazem(XR × 2 days)) for midazolam AUC(0-∞) was 0.98 (90% confidence interval [CI], 0.87, 1.10). The GMR (midazolam + diltiazem(XR × 2 days)/midazolam + diltiazem(CR × 2 days)) for midazolam AUC(0-∞) was 0.82 (90% CI, 0.73, 0.92). Simcyp simulations accurately predicted the observed clinical results only when a hepatic CYP3A degradation rate (k(deg)) different from that provided by the software was used. The data suggest that dosing diltiazem XR for 2 days predicts the change in midazolam AUC as reliably as 5 days of XR dosing and 2 days of CR dosing. In addition, the authors believe that a hepatic CYP3A kdeg of 0.03 h(-1) should be considered for future Simcyp studies.

Wireless ultrasound-powered biotelemetry for implants.

A miniature piezoelectric receiver coupled to a diode is evaluated as a simple device for wireless transmission of bioelectric events to the body surface. The device converts the energy of a surface-applied ultrasound beam to a high frequency carrier current in solution. Bioelectrical currents near the implant modulate the carrier amplitude, and this signal is remotely detected and demodulated to recover the biopotential waveform. This technique achieves millivolt sensitivity in saline tank tests, and further attention to system design is expected to improve sensitivity.

Ultrasonically-assisted intracortical microstimulation of the rat.

High frequency tone bursts of ultrasound are capable of increasing the sensitivity of rat motor cortex to electrical stimulation. In this study, 11.75 MHz ultrasound pre-stimuli were delivered to the forelimb motor region of the rat cortex followed by an electrical pulse train to assess changes in cortical activation. The temporal peak intensity of the ultrasound delivered to the brain ranged from 100 to 150 W/cm(2). Tone bursts of 10 to 50 ms in duration were delivered once per second over periods of 30 to 240 seconds. The intracortical microstimulation (ICMS) current needed for forepaw motor response decreased by as much as 40% when applying 50 ms ultrasound pulses. Brain excitability changes were seen with a thermal index (TI) as low as 2.0. Ultrasound application alone was not able to induce motor responses.

Absorption, metabolism, and excretion of etoricoxib, a potent and selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor, in healthy male volunteers.

[(14)C]Etoricoxib (100 microCi/dose) was administered to six healthy male subjects (i.v., 25 mg; p.o., 100 mg). Following the i.v. dose, the plasma clearance was 57 ml/min, and the harmonic mean half-life was 24.8 h. Etoricoxib accounted for the majority of the radioactivity (approximately 75%) present in plasma following both i.v. and p.o. doses. The oral dose, administered as a solution in polyethylene glycol-400, was well absorbed (absolute bioavailability of approximately 83%). Total recovery of radioactivity in the excreta was 90% (i.v.) and 80% (p.o.), with 70% (i.v.) and 60% (p.o.) excreted in urine and 20% in feces after either route of administration. Radiochromatographic analysis of the excreta revealed that etoricoxib was metabolized extensively, and only a minor fraction of the dose (<1%) was excreted unchanged. Radiochromatograms of urine and feces showed that the 6'-carboxylic acid derivative of etoricoxib was the major metabolite observed (> or =65% of the total radioactivity). 6'-Hydroxymethyl-etoricoxib and etoricoxib-1'-N-oxide, as well as the O-beta-D-glucuronide conjugate and the 1'-N-oxide derivative of 6'-hydroxymethyl-etoricoxib, were present in the excreta also (individually, < or =10% of the total radioactivity). In healthy male subjects, therefore, etoricoxib is well absorbed, is metabolized extensively via oxidation (6'-methyl oxidation >1'-N-oxidation), and the metabolites are excreted largely in the urine.