Dandelion PPO-1/PPO-2 domain-swaps: the C-terminal domain modulates the pH optimum and the linker affects SDS-mediated activation and stability.

Plant polyphenol oxidases (PPOs) have a conserved three-domain structure: (i) the N-terminal domain (containing the active site) is connected via (ii) a linker to (iii) the C-terminal domain. The latter covers the active site, thereby maintaining the enzyme in a latent state. Activation can be achieved with SDS but little is known about the mechanism. We prepared domain-swap variants of dandelion PPO-1 and PPO-2 to test the specific functions of individual domains and their impact on enzyme characteristics. Our experiments revealed that the C-terminal domain modulates the pH optimum curve and has a strong influence on the optimal pH value. The linker determines the SDS concentration required for full activation. It also influences the SDS concentration required for half maximal activation (kSDS) and the stability of the enzyme during prolonged incubation in buffers containing SDS, but the N-terminal domain has the strongest effect on these parameters. The N-terminal domain also determines the IC50 of SDS and the stability in buffers containing or lacking SDS. We propose that the linker and C-terminal domain fine-tune the activation of plant PPOs. The C-terminal domain adjusts the pH optimum and the linker probably contains an SDS-binding/interaction site that influences inactivation and determines the SDS concentration required for activation. For the first time, we have determined the influence of the three PPO domains on enzyme activation and stability providing insight into the regulation and activation mechanisms of type-3 copper proteins in general.

A highly conserved tRNA modification contributes to C. albicans filamentation and virulence.

tRNA modifications play important roles in maintaining translation accuracy in all domains of life. Disruptions in the tRNA modification machinery, especially of the anticodon stem loop, can be lethal for many bacteria and lead to a broad range of phenotypes in baker's yeast. Very little is known about the function of tRNA modifications in host-pathogen interactions, where rapidly changing environments and stresses require fast adaptations. We found that two closely related fungal pathogens of humans, the highly pathogenic Candida albicans and its much less pathogenic sister species, Candida dubliniensis, differ in the function of a tRNA-modifying enzyme. This enzyme, Hma1, exhibits species-specific effects on the ability of the two fungi to grow in the hypha morphology, which is central to their virulence potential. We show that Hma1 has tRNA-threonylcarbamoyladenosine dehydratase activity, and its deletion alters ribosome occupancy, especially at 37°C-the body temperature of the human host. A C. albicans HMA1 deletion mutant also shows defects in adhesion to and invasion into human epithelial cells and shows reduced virulence in a fungal infection model. This links tRNA modifications to host-induced filamentation and virulence of one of the most important fungal pathogens of humans.IMPORTANCEFungal infections are on the rise worldwide, and their global burden on human life and health is frequently underestimated. Among them, the human commensal and opportunistic pathogen, Candida albicans, is one of the major causative agents of severe infections. Its virulence is closely linked to its ability to change morphologies from yeasts to hyphae. Here, this ability is linked-to our knowledge for the first time-to modifications of tRNA and translational efficiency. One tRNA-modifying enzyme, Hma1, plays a specific role in C. albicans and its ability to invade the host. This adds a so-far unknown layer of regulation to the fungal virulence program and offers new potential therapeutic targets to fight fungal infections.

Structural diversity in the dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) polyphenol oxidase family results in different responses to model substrates.

Polyphenol oxidases (PPOs) are ubiquitous type-3 copper enzymes that catalyze the oxygen-dependent conversion of o-diphenols to the corresponding quinones. In most plants, PPOs are present as multiple isoenzymes that probably serve distinct functions, although the precise relationship between sequence, structure and function has not been addressed in detail. We therefore compared the characteristics and activities of recombinant dandelion PPOs to gain insight into the structure-function relationships within the plant PPO family. Phylogenetic analysis resolved the 11 isoenzymes of dandelion into two evolutionary groups. More detailed in silico and in vitro analyses of four representative PPOs covering both phylogenetic groups were performed. Molecular modeling and docking predicted differences in enzyme-substrate interactions, providing a structure-based explanation for grouping. One amino acid side chain positioned at the entrance to the active site (position HB2+1) potentially acts as a "selector" for substrate binding. In vitro activity measurements with the recombinant, purified enzymes also revealed group-specific differences in kinetic parameters when the selected PPOs were presented with five model substrates. The combination of our enzyme kinetic measurements and the in silico docking studies therefore indicate that the physiological functions of individual PPOs might be defined by their specific interactions with different natural substrates.