Assessing aortic flow with doppler echocardiography in cardiogenic shock: A crucial diagnostic tool.

PURPOSE: Cardiogenic shock still has a high mortality. In order to correctly manage these patients, it is useful to have available haemodynamic parameters, invasive and non-invasive. The aim of this review is to show the current evidence on the use of echocardiographic aortic flow assessment by left ventricular outflow tract - velocity time integral. METHODS: Publications relevant to the discussion of echocardiographic aortic flow assessment by left ventricular outflow tract - velocity time integral and cardiogenic shock, were retrieved from PubMed®. RESULTS: Left ventricular outflow tract - velocity time integral is an easily sampled and reproducible parameter that has already been shown to have prognostic value in various cardiovascular pathologies, including myocardial infarction and heart failure. Although there are still few data available in the literature, the LVOT-VTI also seems to have an important role in CS from prognosis to guidance in the escalation/de-escalation of vasoactive therapy and to support devices by allowing an estimate of patient's probability of response to fluid administration. CONCLUSION: Aortic flow assessment can become a very useful invasive parameter in the management of cardiogenic shock.

Cardiac contractility modulation: an effective treatment strategy for heart failure beyond reduced left ventricular ejection fraction?

Heart failure (HF) with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) causes a progressive limitation of functional capacity, poor quality of life (QoL) and increased mortality, yet unlike HF with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) there are no effective device-based therapies. Both HFrEF and HFpEF are associated with dysregulations in myocardial cellular calcium homeostasis and modifications in calcium-handling proteins, leading to abnormal myocardial contractility and pathological remodelling. Cardiac contractility modulation (CCM) therapy, based on a pacemaker-like implanted device, applies extracellular electrical stimulation to myocytes during the absolute refractory period of the action potential, which leads to an increase in cytosolic peak calcium concentrations and thereby the force of isometric contraction promoting positive inotropism. Subgroup analysis of CCM trials in HFrEF has demonstrated particular benefits in patients with LVEF between 35% and 45%, suggesting its potential effectiveness also in patients with higher LVEF values. Available evidence on CCM in HFpEF is still preliminary, but improvements in terms of symptoms and QoL have been observed. Future large, dedicated, prospective studies are needed to evaluate the safety and efficacy of this therapy in patients with HFpEF.

Creatine deficiency and heart failure.

Impaired cardiac energy metabolism has been proposed as a mechanism common to different heart failure aetiologies. The energy-depletion hypothesis was pursued by several researchers, and is still a topic of considerable interest. Unlike most organs, in the heart, the creatine kinase system represents a major component of the metabolic machinery, as it functions as an energy shuttle between mitochondria and cytosol. In heart failure, the decrease in creatine level anticipates the reduction in adenosine triphosphate, and the degree of myocardial phosphocreatine/adenosine triphosphate ratio reduction correlates with disease severity, contractile dysfunction, and myocardial structural remodelling. However, it remains to be elucidated whether an impairment of phosphocreatine buffer activity contributes to the pathophysiology of heart failure and whether correcting this energy deficit might prove beneficial. The effects of creatine deficiency and the potential utility of creatine supplementation have been investigated in experimental and clinical models, showing controversial findings. The goal of this article is to provide a comprehensive overview on the role of creatine in cardiac energy metabolism, the assessment and clinical value of creatine deficiency in heart failure, and the possible options for the specific metabolic therapy.

Characteristics and outcomes of patients hospitalized for COVID-19 and cardiac disease in Northern Italy.

AIMS: To compare demographic characteristics, clinical presentation, and outcomes of patients with and without concomitant cardiac disease, hospitalized for COVID-19 in Brescia, Lombardy, Italy. METHODS AND RESULTS: The study population includes 99 consecutive patients with COVID-19 pneumonia admitted to our hospital between 4 March and 25 March 2020. Fifty-three patients with a history of cardiac disease were compared with 46 without cardiac disease. Among cardiac patients, 40% had a history of heart failure, 36% had atrial fibrillation, and 30% had coronary artery disease. Mean age was 67 ± 12 years, and 80 (81%) patients were males. No differences were found between cardiac and non-cardiac patients except for higher values of serum creatinine, N-terminal probrain natriuretic peptide, and high sensitivity troponin T in cardiac patients. During hospitalization, 26% patients died, 15% developed thrombo-embolic events, 19% had acute respiratory distress syndrome, and 6% had septic shock. Mortality was higher in patients with cardiac disease compared with the others (36% vs. 15%, log-rank P = 0.019; relative risk 2.35; 95% confidence interval 1.08-5.09). The rate of thrombo-embolic events and septic shock during the hospitalization was also higher in cardiac patients (23% vs. 6% and 11% vs. 0%, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Hospitalized patients with concomitant cardiac disease and COVID-19 have an extremely poor prognosis compared with subjects without a history of cardiac disease, with higher mortality, thrombo-embolic events, and septic shock rates.

Red cell distribution width and chronic heart failure: prognostic role beyond echocardiographic parameters.

AIM: Red cell distribution width (RDW) is a measure of anisocytosis. Higher values are robustly associated to adverse outcome in several conditions, including chronic heart failure (HF). The present study aimed to compared its prognostic role with that of echocardiographic parameters in this kind of patients. METHODS: 32 stable and optimally treated chronic HF patients were enrolled. We excluded subjects suffering from valvular diseases or atrial fibrillation. They underwent blood sampling and echocardiographic examination. The primary endpoint of the study was cardiovascular death and/or HF hospitalization in the first year after enrolment. RESULTS: 49 patients reached the primary endpoint. RDW best cut-off at ROC curve was 14.45%. Univariate analysis associated mitral regurgitation grade, left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF), posterior wall thickness (PWT), LV mass index, and RDW>14.45% to the primary endpoint. Multivariate regression analysis showed that LVEF, PWT, and RDW>14.45% predict the primary endpoint. Area under ROC curve was 0.808 for LVEF, 0.762 for NYHA class, and 0.761 for RDW. CONCLUSION: In chronic HF patients RDW is a better predictor of adverse outcome than several echocardiographic parameters associated to outcome itself (LV mass index, mitral regurgitation grade), predicts prognosis even adjusting for those parameters, age and NYHA class, and is associated to several echocardiographic measurements. In conclusion, RDW can expand our tool bag in order to better follow-up these patients.

Left ventricular function in rheumatoid arthritis during anti-TNF-α treatment: a speckle tracking prospective echocardiographic study.

AIM: Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) shows a high risk for cardiovascular disease, including heart failure. Although TNF-α has been implicated in the pathogenesis of myocardial remodelling, TNF-α inhibition did not show any efficacy in patients with advanced heart failure and should be contraindicated in RA with cardiac complications. We aimed to assess global left ventricular (LV) systolic function using global longitudinal strain (GLS) as a measure of myocardial deformation, in a group of RA patients before and during anti-TNF-α treatment. METHODS: 13 patients (female:male 7:6) affected by RA were prospectively followed for one year during anti TNF-α treatment. Every subject underwent echocardiography before starting anti-TNF-α drugs and after one year of treatment, to evaluate LV ejection fraction (EF), telediastolic diameter, telediastolic volume and global longitudinal strain (GLS) that was calculated using 2D speckle tracking as the mean GLS from three standard apical views (2, 3 and 4 -chambers). The patients showed a mean age of 43 years at RA onset (SD: 13) and a mean follow-up of 7.3 years (SD: 4.8). Steroid and methotrexate were used in 84.6% and 100%, respectively, in association with etanercept (6 cases), adalimumab (4 cases) and infliximab (3 cases). RESULTS: Patients globally showed a normal EF before and after one year of treatment (mean: 65% and 65.7%, respectively). GLS did not differ before or after anti-TNF-α treatment (mean: -15.8% and -16.7%, respectively). CONCLUSION: Anti-TNF-α treatment did not significantly modify myocardial contractility after 12 months.

Obesity, heart failure with preserved ejection fraction, and the role of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists.

Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) has a high prevalence, affecting more than 50% of patients with heart failure. HFpEF is associated with multiple comorbidities, and obesity is one of the most common. A distinct phenotype has been proposed for obese patients with HFpEF. Recent data show the beneficial role of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1 RAs) for weight loss in diabetic and non-diabetic patients with obesity or overweight when given as adjunctive therapy to diet and exercise. The mechanisms of action are related to paracrine and endocrine signalling pathways within the gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, and central nervous system that delay gastric emptying, decrease appetite, augment pancreatic beta-cell insulin secretion, and suppress pancreatic glucagon release. These drugs are therefore potentially indicated for treatment of patients with HFpEF and obesity or overweight. Efficacy and safety need to be shown by clinical trials with a first one, Semaglutide Treatment Effect in People with obesity and heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (STEP HFpEF), recently concluded. The aim of the present review is to provide the pathophysiological and pharmacological rationale for GLP-1 RA administration to obese patients with HFpEF.

Prognostic role of mitral regurgitation in patients with advanced heart failure.

AIM: The impact of mitral regurgitation (MR) in patients with advanced heart failure (HF) is poorly known. We aimed to evaluate the impact of MR on clinical outcomes of a real-world, contemporary, multicentre population with advanced HF. METHODS: The HELP-HF registry enrolled patients with HF and at least one "I NEED HELP" criterion, at four Italian centres between January 2020 and November 2021. The population was stratified by none/mild MR vs. moderate MR vs. severe MR. Outcomes of interest were all-cause, cardiovascular (CV) death, the composite of all-cause death or first HF hospitalization, first HF hospitalization and recurrent HF hospitalizations. RESULTS: Among 1079 patients, 429 (39.8%) had none/mild MR, 443 (41.1%) had moderate MR and 207 (19.2%) had severe MR. Patients with severe MR were most likely to be inpatients, present with cardiogenic shock, need intravenous loop diuretics and inotropes/vasopressors, have lower ejection fraction and higher natriuretic peptides. Estimated rates of all-cause death, CV death, and the composite of all-cause death or first HF hospitalization at 1 year increased with increasing MR severity. Compared with no/mild MR, severe MR was independently associated with an increased risk of CV death (adjusted HR 1.61, 95% CI 1.04-2.51, p = 0.033) and recurrent HF hospitalizations (adjusted HR 1.49, 95% CI 1.08-2.06, p = 0.015), but not with and increased risk of all-cause death, first HF hospitalization and composite outcome. CONCLUSIONS: In unselected patients with advanced HF, severe MR was common and independently associated with an increased risk of CV death and of recurrent HF hospitalizations.

Hepatic T1-time, cardiac structure and function and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy.

AIM: Liver damage frequently occurs in patients with cardiovascular (CV) disease and is associated with adverse clinical outcomes. The associations of liver damage with cardiac structure/function measures and the risk of adverse CV events in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) are poorly known. METHODS: We retrospectively enrolled consecutive patients with DCM undergoing cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). In addition to standard cardiac assessment, iron-corrected T1 mapping was also assessed in the liver. Cross-sectional associations between hepatic T1-time and cardiac structure and function were examined accounting for potential confounders. Longitudinal associations between hepatic T1-time and the risk of hospitalization for HF or CV death were also assessed. RESULTS: Overall, 120 stable patients with established DCM were included in the study (mean age 54.7 years, 26 % women). The mean hepatic iron-corrected T1-time was 563±73 ms. In linear regression analyses, measures of left atrial structure (LA maximal volume, p = 0.035, LA minimal volume=0.012), interventricular septum thickness (p = 0.026), and right ventricular ejection fraction (p = 0.005) were significantly associated with greater hepatic T1-time. Over a mean follow-up of 4.5 ± 1.8 years, 32 (27 %) died or were hospitalized for HF at a rate of 6.7 per 100 person-year. Higher hepatic iron-corrected T1-time was independently associated with a higher risk of adverse events (adjusted-hazard ratio 1.71, 95 % confidence interval: 1.14-2.56, p = 0.009). Patients with a hepatic T1-time ≥563 ms had a higher risk of CV events (log-rank p = 0.03). CONCLUSION: Among stable patients with DCM, higher hepatic iron-corrected T1-time is associated with worse cardiac size and function and with higher rates of hospitalization for HF or CV death. CONDENSED ABSTRACT: Limited data exist regarding the clinical value of hepatic T1-time in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) undergoing cardiac Magnetic Resonance imaging (MRI). We found that higher hepatic iron-corrected T1-time is associated with worse cardiac size and function, even after accounting for clinical confounders. Over a mean follow-up of 4.5 ± 1.8 years, higher hepatic iron-corrected T1-time was independently associated with a higher risk of hospitalization for heart failure or cardiovascular death. Among stable patients with DCM, the evaluation of liver tissue by cardiac MRI may provide useful clinical information for CV risk stratification.

Impact of age on clinical outcomes and response to serelaxin in patients with acute heart failure: An analysis from the RELAX-AHF-2 trial.

AIMS: Acute heart failure (AHF) is a major cause of hospitalizations and death in the elderly. However, elderly patients are often underrepresented in randomized clinical trials. We analysed the impact of age on clinical outcomes and response to treatment in patients enrolled in Relaxin in Acute Heart Failure (RELAX-AHF-2), a study that included older patients than in previous AHF trials. METHODS AND RESULTS: The RELAX-AHF-2 randomized patients admitted for AHF to infusion of serelaxin or placebo. We examined the association of pre-specified clinical outcomes and treatment effect according to age categories [(years): <65 (n = 1411), 65-74 (n = 1832), 75-79 (n = 1222), 80-84 (n = 1156) and ≥85 (n = 924)]. The mean age of the 6545 patients enrolled in RELAX-AHF-2 was 73.0 ± 11 years. The risk of all-cause and cardiovascular (CV) death (all p < 0.001) as well as the composite endpoint of CV death or heart failure/renal failure rehospitalization through 180 days (p = 0.002) and hospital discharge through day 60 (p = 0.013) were all directly associated with age categories. Age remained independently associated with outcomes after adjustment for clinical confounders and the results were consistent when age was analysed continuously. No clinically significant change in treatment effects of serelaxin was observed across age categories for the pre-specified endpoints (interaction p > 0.05). CONCLUSION: Elderly patients are at higher risk of short- and long-term CV outcomes after a hospitalization for AHF. Further efforts are needed to improve CV outcomes in this population.

Clinical burden and predictors of non-cardiovascular mortality and morbidity in advanced heart failure.

BACKGROUND: The changing demographic of heart failure (HF) increases the exposure to non-cardiovascular (non-CV) events. We investigated the distribution of non-CV mortality/morbidity and the characteristics associated with higher risk of non-CV events in patients with advanced HF. METHODS: Patients from the HELP-HF registry were stratified according to the number of 2018 HFA-ESC criteria for advanced HF. Endpoints were non-CV mortality and non-CV hospitalization. Competing risk analyses were performed assessing the association between HFA-ESC criteria and study outcomes and the additional predictors of non-CV endpoints. RESULTS: One thousand one hundred and forty-nine patients were included (median age 77 years-IQR 69-83). At 6, 12, 18 and 22 months, cumulative incidence of CV vs non-CV mortality was 13% vs 5%, 17% vs 8%, 20% vs 12%, 23% vs 12%, and of CV vs non-CV hospitalization was 26% vs 11%, 38% vs 17%, 45% vs 20%, 50% vs 21%. HFA-ESC criteria were associated with increasing adjusted risk of CV death, whereas no association was observed for CV hospitalization, non-CV death and non-CV hospitalization. Predictors of non-CV death were age, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, dementia, preserved ejection fraction, >1 HF hospitalization and hemoglobin. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with advanced HF are exposed to high, even though not predominant, burden of non-CV outcomes. HFA-ESC criteria aid to stratify the risk of CV death, but are not associated with lower competing risk of non-CV outcomes. Alternative factors can be useful to define the patients with advanced HF at risk of non-CV events in order to better select patients for treatments specifically reducing CV risk.

H2FPEF and HFA-PEFF scores performance and the additional value of cardiac structure and function in patients with atrial fibrillation.

BACKGROUND: The H2FPEF and the HFA-PEFF scores have become useful tools to diagnose heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF). Their accuracy in patients with a history of atrial fibrillation (AF) is less known. This study evaluates the association of these scores with invasive left atrial pressure (LAP) and the additional value of cardiac measures. METHODS: This is a multicenter observational prospective study involving patients undergoing ablation of AF. Patients with left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) < 40%, congenital cardiopathy, any severe cardiac valve disease and prosthetic valves were excluded. Elevated filling pressure was defined as a mean LAP ≥15 mmHg. RESULTS: A total of 135 patients were enrolled in the study (mean age 65.2 ± 9.1 years, 32% female, mean LVEF 56.9 ± 7.9%). Patients with H2FPEF ≥ 6 or HFA-PEFF ≥5 had higher values of NTproBNP and more impaired cardiac function. However, neither H2FPEF nor HFA-PEFF score showed a meaningful association with elevated mean LAP (respectively, OR 1.05 [95%CI 0.83-1.34] p = 0.64, and OR 1.09 [95%CI: 0.86-1.39] p = 0.45). The addition of LA indexed minimal volume (LAVi min) improved the ability of the scores (baseline C-statistic 0.51 [95%CI 0.41-0.61] for the H2FPEF score and 0.53 [95%CI 0.43-0.64] for the HFA-PEFF score) to diagnose elevated filling pressure (H2FPEF + LAVi min: C-statistic 0.70 [95%CI 0.60-0.80], p-value = 0.005; HFA-PEFF + LAVi min: C-statistic 0.70 [95%CI 0.60-0.80], p-value = 0.02). CONCLUSION: In a cohort of patients with a history of AF, the use of the available diagnostic scores did not predict elevated mean LAP. The integration of LAVi min improved the ability to correctly identify elevated filling pressure.

Impact of malnutrition in patients with severe heart failure.

AIM: The role of malnutrition among patients with severe heart failure (HF) is not well established. We evaluated the incidence, predictors, and prognostic impact of malnutrition in patients with severe HF. METHODS AND RESULTS: Nutritional status was measured using the geriatric nutritional risk index (GNRI), based on body weight, height and serum albumin concentration, with malnutrition defined as GNRI ≤98. It was assessed in consecutive patients with severe HF, defined by at least one high-risk 'I NEED HELP' marker, enrolled at four Italian centres between January 2020 and November 2021. The primary endpoint was all-cause mortality. A total of 510 patients with data regarding nutritional status were included in the study (mean age 74 ± 12 years, 66.5% male). Among them, 179 (35.1%) had GNRI ≤98 (malnutrition). At multivariable logistic regression, lower body mass index (BMI) and higher levels of natriuretic peptides (B-type natriuretic peptide [BNP] > median value [685 pg/ml] or N-terminal proBNP > median value [5775 pg/ml]) were independently associated with a higher likelihood of malnutrition. Estimated rates of all-cause death at 1 year were 22.4% and 41.1% in patients without and with malnutrition, respectively (log-rank p < 0.001). The impact of malnutrition on all-cause mortality was confirmed after multivariable adjustment for relevant covariates (adjusted hazard ratio 2.03, 95% confidence interval 1.43-2.89, p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: In a contemporary, real-world, multicentre cohort of patients with severe HF, malnutrition (defined as GNRI ≤98) was common and independently associated with an increased risk of mortality. Lower BMI and higher natriuretic peptides were identified as predictors of malnutrition in these patients.

A matter of sex-persistent predictive value of MECKI score prognostic power in men and women with heart failure and reduced ejection fraction: a multicenter study.

Background: A sex-based evaluation of prognosis in heart failure (HF) is lacking. Methods and results: We analyzed the Metabolic Exercise test data combined with Cardiac and Kidney Indexes (MECKI) score registry, which includes HF with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) patients. A cross-validation procedure was performed to estimate weights separately for men and women of all MECKI score parameters: left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF), hemoglobin, kidney function assessed by Modification of Diet in Renal Disease, blood sodium level, ventilation vs. carbon dioxide production slope, and peak oxygen consumption (peakVO2). The primary outcomes were the composite of all-cause mortality, urgent heart transplant, and implant of a left ventricle assist device. The difference in predictive ability between the native and sex recalibrated MECKI (S-MECKI) was calculated using a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve at 2 years and a calibration plot. We retrospectively analyzed 7,900 HFrEF patients included in the MECKI score registry (mean age 61 ± 13 years, 6,456 men/1,444 women, mean LVEF 33% ± 10%, mean peakVO2 56.2% ± 17.6% of predicted) with a median follow-up of 4.05 years (range 1.72-7.47). Our results revealed an unadjusted risk of events that was doubled in men compared to women (9.7 vs. 4.1) and a significant difference in weight between the sexes of most of the parameters included in the MECKI score. S-MECKI showed improved risk classification and accuracy (area under the ROC curve: 0.7893 vs. 0.7799, p = 0.02) due to prognostication improvement in the high-risk settings in both sexes (MECKI score >10 in men and >5 in women). Conclusions: S-MECKI, i.e., the recalibrated MECKI according to sex-specific differences, constitutes a further step in the prognostic assessment of patients with severe HFrEF.

OPTImal PHARMacological therapy for patients with heart failure: Rationale and design of the OPTIPHARM-HF registry.

AIMS: Patients with heart failure (HF) remain often undertreated for multiple reasons, including treatment inertia, contraindications, and intolerance. The OPTIimal PHARMacological therapy for patients with Heart Failure (OPTIPHARM-HF) registry is designed to evaluate the prevalence of evidence-based medical treatment prescription and titration, as well as the causes of its underuse, in a broad real-world population of consecutive patients with HF across the whole ejection fraction spectrum and among different clinical phenotypes. METHODS: The OPTIPHARM-HF registry (NCT06192524) is a prospective, multicenter, observational, national study of adult patients with symptomatic HF, as defined by current international guidelines, regardless of ejection fraction. Both outpatients and inpatients with chronic and acute decompensated HF will be recruited. The study will enroll up to 2500 patients with chronic HF at approximately 35 Italian HF centres. Patients will be followed for a maximum duration of 24 months. The primary objective of the OPTIPHARM-HF registry is to assess prescription and adherence to evidence-based guideline-directed medical therapy (GDMT) in patients with HF. The primary outcome is to describe the prevalence of GDMT use according to target guideline recommendation. Secondary objectives include implementation of comorbidity treatment, evaluation of sequence of treatment introduction and up-titration, description of GDMT implementation in the specific HF population, main causes of GDMT underuse, and assessment of cumulative rate of cardiovascular events. CONCLUSION: The OPTIPHARM-HF registry will provide important implications for improving patient care and adoption of recommended medical therapy into clinical practice among HF patients.

The chronic heart failure evolutions: Different fates and routes.

AIMS: Individual prognostic assessment and disease evolution pathways are undefined in chronic heart failure (HF). The application of unsupervised learning methodologies could help to identify patient phenotypes and the progression in each phenotype as well as to assess adverse event risk. METHODS AND RESULTS: From a bulk of 7948 HF patients included in the MECKI registry, we selected patients with a minimum 2-year follow-up. We implemented a topological data analysis (TDA), based on 43 variables derived from clinical, biochemical, cardiac ultrasound, and exercise evaluations, to identify several patients' clusters. Thereafter, we used the trajectory analysis to describe the evolution of HF states, which is able to identify bifurcation points, characterized by different follow-up paths, as well as specific end-stages conditions of the disease. Finally, we conducted a 5-year survival analysis (composite of cardiovascular death, left ventricular assist device, or urgent heart transplant). Findings were validated on internal (n = 527) and external (n = 777) populations. We analyzed 4876 patients (age = 63 [53-71], male gender n = 3973 (81.5%), NYHA class I-II n = 3576 (73.3%), III-IV n = 1300 (26.7%), LVEF = 33 [25.5-39.9], atrial fibrillation n = 791 (16.2%), peak VO2% pred = 54.8 [43.8-67.2]), with a minimum 2-year follow-up. Nineteen patient clusters were identified by TDA. Trajectory analysis revealed a path characterized by 3 bifurcation and 4 end-stage points. Clusters survival rate varied from 44% to 100% at 2 years and from 20% to 100% at 5 years, respectively. The event frequency at 5-year follow-up for each study cohort cluster was successfully compared with those in the validation cohorts (R = 0.94 and R = 0.84, P < 0.001, for internal and external cohort, respectively). Finally, we conducted a 5-year survival analysis (composite of cardiovascular death, left ventricular assist device, or urgent heart transplant observed in 22% of cases). CONCLUSIONS: Each HF phenotype has a specific disease progression and prognosis. These findings allow to individualize HF patient evolutions and to tailor assessment.

Inflammation in acute heart failure.

Acute heart failure (AHF) represents a common clinical scenario that requires prompt evaluation and therapy and that is characterized by a high risk of mortality or subsequent rehospitalizations. The pathophysiology leading to AHF decompensation is still not fully understood. Significant activation of inflammatory pathways has been identified in patients with AHF, particularly in its most severe forms, and it has been hypothesized that systemic inflammation has a role in AHF pathogenesis. Several inflammatory mediators and cytokines, such as high sensitivity C-reactive protein, tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-6, interleukin-1, soluble suppression of tumorigenicity 2 and galectin-3, have been shown to play a role in the pathogenesis, development and worsening of this condition with an independent prediction of adverse outcomes. This manuscript reviews the prevalence and prognostic value of systemic inflammation in AHF, as well as the potential role of anti-inflammatory therapies, focusing on available evidence from clinical trials and ongoing studies.

Multimodality imaging in the diagnostic management of concomitant aortic stenosis and transthyretin-related wild-type cardiac amyloidosis.

Severe aortic stenosis (AS) is the most common valvular heart disease with a prevalence rate of more than 4% in 75-year-old people or older. Similarly, cardiac amyloidosis (CA), especially "wild-type transthyretin" (wTTR), has shown a prevalence rate ranging from 22% to 25% in people older than 80 years. The detection of the concomitant presence of CA and AS is challenging primarily because of the similar type of changes in the left ventricle caused by AS and CA, which share some morphological characteristics. The aim of this review is to identify the imaging triggers in order to recognize occult wtATTR-CA in patients with AS, clarifying the crucial step of the diagnostic process. Multimodality imaging methods such as echocardiography, cardiac magnetic resonance, cardiac computed tomography, and DPD scintigraphy will be analyzed as part of the available diagnostic workup to identify wtATTR-CA early in patients with AS.

Exploring the Prognostic Performance of MECKI Score in Heart Failure Patients with Non-Valvular Atrial Fibrillation Treated with Edoxaban.

INTRODUCTION: Risk stratification in heart failure (HF) is essential for clinical and therapeutic management. The Metabolic Exercise test data combined with Cardiac and Kidney Indexes (MECKI) score is a validated prognostic model for assessing cardiovascular risk in HF patients with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF). From the validation of the score, the prevalence of HF patients treated with direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs), such as edoxaban, for non-valvular atrial fibrillation (NVAF) has been increasing in recent years. This study aims to evaluate the reliability of the MECKI score in HFrEF patients treated with edoxaban for NVAF. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This study included consecutive outpatients with HF and NVAF treated with edoxaban (n = 83) who underwent a cardiopulmonary exercise test (CPET). They were matched by propensity score with a retrospective group of HFrEF patients with NVAF treated with vitamin K antagonists (VKAs) from the MECKI score registry (n = 844). The study endpoint was the risk of cardiovascular mortality, urgent heart transplantation, or Left Ventricle Assist Device (LVAD) implantation. RESULTS: Edoxaban patients were treated with a more optimized HF therapy and had different clinical characteristics, with a similar MECKI score. After propensity score, 77 patients treated with edoxaban were successfully matched with the MECKI-VKA control cohort. In both groups, MECKI accurately predicted the composite endpoint with similar area under the curves (AUC = 0.757 vs. 0.829 in the MECKI-VKA vs. edoxaban-treated group, respectively, p = 0.452). The two populations' survival appeared non-significantly different at the 2-year follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: this study confirms the prognostic accuracy of the MECKI score in HFrEF patients with NVAF treated with edoxaban, showing improved predictive power compared to VKA-treated patients.

Clinical implications of left atrial changes after optimization of medical therapy in patients with heart failure.

AIMS: Limited data exist regarding the prognostic relevance of changes in left atrial (LA) dimensions in patients with heart failure (HF). We assessed changes in LA dimension and their relation with outcomes after optimization of guideline-directed medical therapy (GDMT) in patients with new-onset or worsening HF. METHODS AND RESULTS: Left atrial diameter was assessed at baseline and 9 months after GDMT optimization in 632 patients (mean age 65.8 ± 12.1 years, 22.3% female) enrolled in BIOSTAT-CHF. LA adverse remodelling (LAAR) was defined as an increase in LA diameter on transthoracic echocardiography between baseline and 9 months. After the 9-month visit, patients were followed for a median of 13 further months. LAAR was observed in 247 patients (39%). Larger baseline LA diameter (odds ratio [OR] 0.90; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.87-0.93; p < 0.001) and up-titration to higher doses of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers (ACEi/ARBs) (OR 0.56; 95% CI 0.34-0.92; p = 0.022) were independently associated with lower likelihood of LAAR. LAAR was associated with an increased risk of the composite of all-cause mortality or HF hospitalization (log-rank p = 0.007 and adjusted hazard ratio 1.73, 95% CI 1.22-2.45, p = 0.002). The association was more pronounced in patients without a history of atrial fibrillation (p for interaction = 0.009). CONCLUSION: Among patients enrolled in BIOSTAT-CHF, LAAR was associated with an unfavourable outcome and was prevented by ACEi/ARB up-titration. Changes in LA dimension may be a useful marker of response to treatment and improve risk stratification in patients with HF.