Cereblon influences the timing of muscle differentiation in Ciona tadpoles.

Thalidomide has a dark history as a teratogen, but in recent years, its derivates have been shown to function as potent chemotherapeutic agents. These drugs bind cereblon (CRBN), the substrate receptor of an E3 ubiquitin ligase complex, and modify its degradation targets. Despite these insights, remarkably little is known about the normal function of cereblon in development. Here, we employ Ciona, a simple invertebrate chordate, to identify endogenous Crbn targets. In Ciona, Crbn is specifically expressed in developing muscles during tail elongation before they acquire contractile activity. Crbn expression is activated by Mrf, the ortholog of MYOD1, a transcription factor important for muscle differentiation. CRISPR/Cas9-mediated mutations of Crbn lead to precocious onset of muscle contractions. By contrast, overexpression of Crbn delays contractions and is associated with decreased expression of contractile protein genes such as troponin. This reduction is possibly due to reduced Mrf protein levels without altering Mrf mRNA levels. Our findings suggest that Mrf and Crbn form a negative feedback loop to control the precision of muscle differentiation during tail elongation.

PHF7 is a novel histone H2A E3 ligase prior to histone-to-protamine exchange during spermiogenesis.

Epigenetic regulation, including histone-to-protamine exchanges, controls spermiogenesis. However, the underlying mechanisms of this regulation are largely unknown. Here, we report that PHF7, a testis-specific PHD and RING finger domain-containing protein, is essential for histone-to-protamine exchange in mice. PHF7 is specifically expressed during spermiogenesis. PHF7 deletion results in male infertility due to aberrant histone retention and impaired protamine replacement in elongated spermatids. Mechanistically, PHF7 can simultaneously bind histone H2A and H3; its PHD domain, a histone code reader, can specifically bind H3K4me3/me2, and its RING domain, a histone writer, can ubiquitylate H2A. Thus, our study reveals that PHF7 is a novel E3 ligase that can specifically ubiquitylate H2A through binding H3K4me3/me2 prior to histone-to-protamine exchange.

The hypothalamus predates the origin of vertebrates.

The hypothalamus coordinates neuroendocrine functions in vertebrates. To explore its evolutionary origin, we describe integrated transcriptome/connectome brain maps for swimming tadpoles of Ciona, which serves as an approximation of the ancestral proto-vertebrate. This map features several cell types related to different regions of the vertebrate hypothalamus, including the mammillary nucleus, the arcuate nucleus, and magnocellular neurons. Coronet cells express melanopsin and share additional properties with the saccus vasculosus, a specialized region of the hypothalamus that mediates photoperiodism in nontropical fishes. Comparative transcriptome analyses identified orthologous cell types for mechanosensory switch neurons, and VP+ and VPR+ relay neurons in different regions of the mouse hypothalamus. These observations provide evidence that the hypothalamus predates the evolution of the vertebrate brain. We discuss the possibility that switch neurons, coronet cells, and FoxP+ /VPR+ relay neurons comprise a behavioral circuit that helps trigger metamorphosis of Ciona larvae in response to twilight.

The meiotic TERB1-TERB2-MAJIN complex tethers telomeres to the nuclear envelope.

During meiotic prophase I, telomeres attach to and move on the nuclear envelope (NE), regulating chromosome movement to promote homologous pairing. Meiosis-specific proteins TERB1, TERB2 and MAJIN play a key role in this process. Here, we report the crystal structures of human TERB1-TERB2 and TERB2-MAJIN subcomplexes. Specific disruption of the TERB1-TERB2 or the TERB2-MAJIN interaction in the mouse Terb2 gene abolishes the telomere attachment to the NE and causes aberrant homologous pairing and disordered synapsis. In addition, depletion of SUN1 also partially disrupts the telomere-NE connection. We propose that the telomere-TRF1-TERB1-TERB2-MAJIN-NE interaction network and the telomere-LINC complex connection are likely two separate but cooperative pathways to stably recruit telomeres to the NE in meiosis prophase I. Our work provides a molecular model of the connection between telomeres and the NE and reveals the correlation between aberrant synapsis and the defective telomere attachment to the NE.

PRRT2 deficiency induces paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia by regulating synaptic transmission in cerebellum.

Mutations in the proline-rich transmembrane protein 2 (PRRT2) are associated with paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia (PKD) and several other paroxysmal neurological diseases, but the PRRT2 function and pathogenic mechanisms remain largely obscure. Here we show that PRRT2 is a presynaptic protein that interacts with components of the SNARE complex and downregulates its formation. Loss-of-function mutant mice showed PKD-like phenotypes triggered by generalized seizures, hyperthermia, or optogenetic stimulation of the cerebellum. Mutant mice with specific PRRT2 deletion in cerebellar granule cells (GCs) recapitulate the behavioral phenotypes seen in Prrt2-null mice. Furthermore, recording made in cerebellar slices showed that optogenetic stimulation of GCs results in transient elevation followed by suppression of Purkinje cell firing. The anticonvulsant drug carbamazepine used in PKD treatment also relieved PKD-like behaviors in mutant mice. Together, our findings identify PRRT2 as a novel regulator of the SNARE complex and provide a circuit mechanism underlying the PRRT2-related behaviors.

Structural and functional analyses of the mammalian TIN2-TPP1-TRF2 telomeric complex.

Telomeres are nucleoprotein complexes that play essential roles in protecting chromosome ends. Mammalian telomeres consist of repetitive DNA sequences bound by the shelterin complex. In this complex, the POT1-TPP1 heterodimer binds to single-stranded telomeric DNAs, while TRF1 and TRF2-RAP1 interact with double-stranded telomeric DNAs. TIN2, the linchpin of this complex, simultaneously interacts with TRF1, TRF2, and TPP1 to mediate the stable assembly of the shelterin complex. However, the molecular mechanism by which TIN2 interacts with these proteins to orchestrate telomere protection remains poorly understood. Here, we report the crystal structure of the N-terminal domain of TIN2 in complex with TIN2-binding motifs from TPP1 and TRF2, revealing how TIN2 interacts cooperatively with TPP1 and TRF2. Unexpectedly, TIN2 contains a telomeric repeat factor homology (TRFH)-like domain that functions as a protein-protein interaction platform. Structure-based mutagenesis analyses suggest that TIN2 plays an important role in maintaining the stable shelterin complex required for proper telomere end protection.

Telomeric TERB1-TRF1 interaction is crucial for male meiosis.

During meiotic prophase, the meiosis-specific telomere-binding protein TERB1 regulates chromosome movement required for homologous pairing and recombination by interacting with the telomeric shelterin subunit TRF1. Here, we report the crystal structure of the TRF1-binding motif of human TERB1 in complex with the TRFH domain of TRF1. Notably, specific disruption of the TERB1-TRF1 interaction by a point mutation in the mouse Terb1 gene results in infertility only in males. We find that this mutation causes an arrest in the zygotene-early pachytene stage and mild telomere abnormalities of autosomes but unpaired X and Y chromosomes in pachytene, leading to massive spermatocyte apoptosis. We propose that the loss of telomere structure mediated by the TERB1-TRF1 interaction significantly affects homologous pairing of the telomere-adjacent pseudoautosomal region (PAR) of the X and Y chromosomes in mouse spermatocytes. Our findings uncover a specific mechanism of telomeres that surmounts the unique challenges of mammalian X-Y pairing in meiosis.