The NK cell granule protein NKG7 regulates cytotoxic granule exocytosis and inflammation.

Immune-modulating therapies have revolutionized the treatment of chronic diseases, particularly cancer. However, their success is restricted and there is a need to identify new therapeutic targets. Here, we show that natural killer cell granule protein 7 (NKG7) is a regulator of lymphocyte granule exocytosis and downstream inflammation in a broad range of diseases. NKG7 expressed by CD4+ and CD8+ T cells played key roles in promoting inflammation during visceral leishmaniasis and malaria-two important parasitic diseases. Additionally, NKG7 expressed by natural killer cells was critical for controlling cancer initiation, growth and metastasis. NKG7 function in natural killer and CD8+ T cells was linked with their ability to regulate the translocation of CD107a to the cell surface and kill cellular targets, while NKG7 also had a major impact on CD4+ T cell activation following infection. Thus, we report a novel therapeutic target expressed on a range of immune cells with functions in different immune responses.

Structural analysis of a U-superfamily conotoxin containing a mini-granulin fold: Insights into key features that distinguish between the ICK and granulin folds.

We are entering an exciting time in structural biology where artificial intelligence can be used to predict protein structures with greater accuracy than ever before. Extending this level of accuracy to the predictions of disulfide-rich peptide structures is likely to be more challenging, at least in the short term, given the tight packing of cysteine residues and the numerous ways that the disulfide bonds can potentially be linked. It has been previously shown in many cases that several disulfide bond connectivities can be accommodated by a single set of NMR-derived structural data without significant violations. Disulfide-rich peptides are prevalent throughout nature, and arguably the most well-known are those present in venoms from organisms such as cone snails. Here, we have determined the first three-dimensional structure and disulfide connectivity of a U-superfamily cone snail venom peptide, TxVIIB. TxVIIB has a VI/VII cysteine framework that is generally associated with an inhibitor cystine knot (ICK) fold; however, AlphaFold predicted that the peptide adopts a mini-granulin fold with a granulin disulfide connectivity. Our experimental studies using NMR spectroscopy and orthogonal protection of cysteine residues indicate that TxVIIB indeed adopts a mini-granulin fold but with the ICK disulfide connectivity. Our findings provide structural insight into the underlying features that govern formation of the mini-granulin fold rather than the ICK fold and will provide fundamental information for prediction algorithms, as the subtle complexity of disulfide isomers may be not adequately addressed by the current prediction algorithms.

Novel antiinflammatory biologics shaped by parasite-host coevolution.

Parasitic helminth infections, while a major cause of neglected tropical disease burden, negatively correlate with the incidence of immune-mediated inflammatory diseases such as inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). To evade expulsion, helminths have developed sophisticated mechanisms to regulate their host's immune responses. Controlled experimental human helminth infections have been assessed clinically for treating inflammatory conditions; however, such a radical therapeutic modality has challenges. An alternative approach is to harness the immunomodulatory properties within the worm's excretory-secretory (ES) complement, its secretome. Here, we report a biologics discovery and validation pipeline to generate and screen in vivo a recombinant cell-free secretome library of helminth-derived immunomodulatory proteins. We successfully expressed 78 recombinant ES proteins from gastrointestinal hookworms and screened the crude in vitro translation reactions for anti-IBD properties in a mouse model of acute colitis. After statistical filtering and ranking, 20 proteins conferred significant protection against various parameters of colitis. Lead candidates from distinct protein families, including annexins, transthyretins, nematode-specific retinol-binding proteins, and SCP/TAPS were identified. Representative proteins were produced in mammalian cells and further validated, including ex vivo suppression of inflammatory cytokine secretion by T cells from IBD patient colon biopsies. Proteins identified herein offer promise as novel, safe, and mechanistically differentiated biologics for treating the globally increasing burden of inflammatory diseases.

Knockout of liver fluke granulin, Ov-grn-1, impedes malignant transformation during chronic infection with Opisthorchis viverrini.

Infection with the food-borne liver fluke Opisthorchis viverrini is the principal risk factor for cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) in the Mekong Basin countries of Thailand, Lao PDR, Vietnam, Myanmar and Cambodia. Using a novel model of CCA, involving infection with gene-edited liver flukes in the hamster during concurrent exposure to dietary nitrosamine, we explored the role of the fluke granulin-like growth factor Ov-GRN-1 in malignancy. We derived RNA-guided gene knockout flukes (ΔOv-grn-1) using CRISPR/Cas9/gRNA materials delivered by electroporation. Genome sequencing confirmed programmed Cas9-catalyzed mutations of the targeted genes, which was accompanied by rapid depletion of transcripts and the proteins they encode. Gene-edited parasites colonized the biliary tract of hamsters and developed into adult flukes. However, less hepatobiliary tract disease manifested during chronic infection with ΔOv-grn-1 worms in comparison to hamsters infected with control gene-edited and mock-edited parasites. Specifically, immuno- and colorimetric-histochemical analysis of livers revealed markedly less periductal fibrosis surrounding the flukes and less fibrosis globally within the hepatobiliary tract during infection with ΔOv-grn-1 genotype worms, minimal biliary epithelial cell proliferation, and significantly fewer mutations of TP53 in biliary epithelial cells. Moreover, fewer hamsters developed high-grade CCA compared to controls. The clinically relevant, pathophysiological phenotype of the hepatobiliary tract confirmed a role for this secreted growth factor in malignancy and morbidity during opisthorchiasis.

The Intestinal Microbiota Contributes to the Ability of Helminths to Modulate Allergic Inflammation.

Intestinal helminths are potent regulators of their host's immune system and can ameliorate inflammatory diseases such as allergic asthma. In the present study we have assessed whether this anti-inflammatory activity was purely intrinsic to helminths, or whether it also involved crosstalk with the local microbiota. We report that chronic infection with the murine helminth Heligmosomoides polygyrus bakeri (Hpb) altered the intestinal habitat, allowing increased short chain fatty acid (SCFA) production. Transfer of the Hpb-modified microbiota alone was sufficient to mediate protection against allergic asthma. The helminth-induced anti-inflammatory cytokine secretion and regulatory T cell suppressor activity that mediated the protection required the G protein-coupled receptor (GPR)-41. A similar alteration in the metabolic potential of intestinal bacterial communities was observed with diverse parasitic and host species, suggesting that this represents an evolutionary conserved mechanism of host-microbe-helminth interactions.

Trematode Genomics and Proteomics.

Trematode infections stand out as one of the frequently overlooked tropical diseases, despite their wide global prevalence and remarkable capacity to parasitize diverse host species and tissues. Furthermore, these parasites hold significant socio-economic, medical, veterinary and agricultural implications. Over the past decades, substantial strides have been taken to bridge the information gap concerning various "omic" tools, such as proteomics and genomics, in this field. In this edition of the book, we highlight recent progress in genomics and proteomics concerning trematodes with a particular focus on the advances made in the past 5 years. Additionally, we present insights into cutting-edge technologies employed in studying trematode biology and shed light on the available resources for exploring the molecular facets of this particular group of parasitic helminths.

Metabolomics and lipidomics studies of parasitic helminths: molecular diversity and identification levels achieved by using different characterisation tools.

INTRODUCTION: Helminths are parasitic worms that infect millions of people worldwide and secrete a variety of excretory-secretory products (ESPs), including proteins, peptides, and small molecules. Despite this, there is currently no comprehensive review article on cataloging small molecules from helminths, particularly focusing on the different classes of metabolites (polar and lipid molecules) identified from the ESP and somatic tissue extracts of helminths that were studied in isolation from their hosts. OBJECTIVE: This review aims to provide a comprehensive assessment of the metabolomics and lipidomics studies of parasitic helminths using all available analytical platforms. METHOD: To achieve this objective, we conducted a meta-analysis of the identification and characterization tools, metabolomics approaches, metabolomics standard initiative (MSI) levels, software, and databases commonly applied in helminth metabolomics studies published until November 2021. RESULT: This review analyzed 29 studies reporting the metabolomic assessment of ESPs and somatic tissue extracts of 17 helminth species grown under ex vivo/in vitro culture conditions. Of these 29 studies, 19 achieved the highest level of metabolite identification (MSI level-1), while the remaining studies reported MSI level-2 identification. Only 155 small molecule metabolites, including polar and lipids, were identified using MSI level-1 characterization protocols from various helminth species. Despite the significant advances made possible by the 'omics' technology, standardized software and helminth-specific metabolomics databases remain significant challenges in this field. Overall, this review highlights the potential for future studies to better understand the diverse range of small molecules that helminths produce and leverage their unique metabolomic features to develop novel treatment options.

Development of a peptide vaccine against hookworm infection: Immunogenicity, efficacy, and immune correlates of protection.

BACKGROUND: Approximately 400 million individuals are infected with hookworms globally. Protective vaccines are needed to prevent reinfections, which often occur after drug treatment in endemic areas. Ideal vaccines are highly efficacious and well tolerated, and do not present risks to patient safety. Peptide vaccines can generate specific, highly protective responses because they focus on minimal antigenic target(s) with a specific immunoprotective mechanism. Necator americanus aspartyl protease 1 (Na-APR-1) is one of the most promising hookworm vaccine antigens. The neutralizing epitope p3 (TSLIAGPKAQVEAIQKYIGAEL), together with universal the TH epitope P25 (KLIPNASLIENCTKAEL), has been used previously to produce peptide vaccines and was found to protect BALB/c mice against rodent hookworm infections, resulting in worm burden reductions of up to 98%. However, because of extensive digestion in the gastrointestinal tract, large oral vaccination doses were necessary to achieve this level of efficacy. OBJECTIVE: We sought to overcome the limitations of oral vaccine delivery and to investigate protective efficacy and immune correlates of protection. Herein, we examined 5 different peptide vaccines following intraperitoneal injection, to compare their efficacy with that of the clinical protein antigen APR-1. METHODS: BALB/c mice were immunized with p3-P25-based antigen that was adjuvanted with (1) lipid core peptide, (2) polymethyl methacrylate, (3) linear polyleucine, and (4) branched polyleucine (BL10), or with (5) CpG/aluminum hydroxide adjuvant (alum)-adjuvanted control and protein-based (6) CpG/alum-adjuvanted Na-APR-1. The mice sera, saliva, and feces were sampled for immune response evaluation. The immunized mice were further challenged via hookworm larvae infection, and protection was evaluated by conducting intestinal hookworm counts. RESULTS: BL10 and lipid core peptide generated the highest serum anti-Na-APR-1 IgG and fecal anti-APR-1 IgG titers, but only BL10 generated significant fecal anti-Na-APR-1 IgA titers. Upon challenge, immunization with CpG/alum-adjuvanted p3-P25, BL10, and lipid core peptide provided the highest worm burden reductions of 75%, 77%, and 59%, respectively, whereas the group immunized with Na-APR-1 had only modest worm reduction of 26%. The relationships between serum anti-Na-APR-1 IgG, fecal anti-Na-APR-1 IgA and IgG, and worm burden reduction were established with R2 values greater than or equal to 0.9, and the crucial role of both anti-Na-APR-1 IgG and IgA responses was identified. CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrated for the first time that p3-based vaccine candidates are safer and can deliver higher protection against hookworm infection compared with the clinical vaccine candidate, Na-APR-1.

Synthetic hookworm-derived peptides are potent modulators of primary human immune cell function that protect against experimental colitis in vivo.

The prevalence of autoimmune diseases is on the rise globally. Currently, autoimmunity presents in over 100 different forms and affects around 9% of the world's population. Current treatments available for autoimmune diseases are inadequate, expensive, and tend to focus on symptom management rather than cure. Clinical trials have shown that live helminthic therapy can decrease chronic inflammation associated with inflammatory bowel disease and other gastrointestinal autoimmune inflammatory conditions. As an alternative and better controlled approach to live infection, we have identified and characterized two peptides, Acan1 and Nak1, from the excretory/secretory component of parasitic hookworms for their therapeutic activity on experimental colitis. We synthesized Acan1 and Nak1 peptides from the Ancylostoma caninum and Necator americanus hookworms and assessed their structures and protective properties in human cell-based assays and in a mouse model of acute colitis. Acan1 and Nak1 displayed anticolitic properties via significantly reducing weight loss and colon atrophy, edema, ulceration, and necrosis in 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid-exposed mice. These hookworm peptides prevented mucosal loss of goblet cells and preserved intestinal architecture. Acan1 upregulated genes responsible for the repair and restitution of ulcerated epithelium, whereas Nak1 downregulated genes responsible for epithelial cell migration and apoptotic cell signaling within the colon. These peptides were nontoxic and displayed key immunomodulatory functions in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells by suppressing CD4+ T cell proliferation and inhibiting IL-2 and TNF production. We conclude that Acan1 and Nak1 warrant further development as therapeutics for the treatment of autoimmunity, particularly gastrointestinal inflammatory conditions.

Harnessing helminth-driven immunoregulation in the search for novel therapeutic modalities.

Parasitic helminths have coevolved with humans over millennia, intricately refining and developing an array of mechanisms to suppress or skew the host's immune system, thereby promoting their long-term survival. Some helminths, such as hookworms, cause little to no overt pathology when present in modest numbers and may even confer benefits to their human host. To exploit this evolutionary phenomenon, clinical trials of human helminth infection have been established and assessed for safety and efficacy for a range of immune dysfunction diseases and have yielded mixed outcomes. Studies of live helminth therapy in mice and larger animals have convincingly shown that helminths and their excretory/secretory products possess anti-inflammatory drug-like properties and represent an untapped pharmacopeia. These anti-inflammatory moieties include extracellular vesicles, proteins, glycans, post-translational modifications, and various metabolites. Although the concept of helminth-inspired therapies holds promise, it also presents a challenge to the drug development community, which is generally unfamiliar with foreign biologics that do not behave like antibodies. Identification and characterization of helminth molecules and vesicles and the molecular pathways they target in the host present a unique opportunity to develop tailored drugs inspired by nature that are efficacious, safe, and have minimal immunogenicity. Even so, much work remains to mine and assess this out-of-the-box therapeutic modality. Industry-based organizations need to consider long-haul investments aimed at unraveling and exploiting unique and differentiated mechanisms of action as opposed to toe-dipping entries with an eye on rapid and profitable turnarounds.

Newly Discovered Peptides from the Coral Heliofungia actiniformis Show Structural and Functional Diversity.

Scleractinian corals are crucially important to the health of some of the world's most biodiverse, productive, and economically important marine habitats. Despite this importance, analysis of coral peptidomes is still in its infancy. Here we show that the tentacle extract from the stony coral Heliofungia actiniformis is rich in peptides with diverse and novel structures. We have characterized the sequences and three-dimensional structures of four new peptides, three of which have no known homologues. We show that a 2 kDa peptide, Hact-2, promotes significant cell proliferation on human cells and speculate this peptide may be involved in the remarkable regenerative capacity of corals. We found a 3 kDa peptide, Hact-3, encoded within a fascin-like domain, and homologues of Hact-3 are present in the genomes of other coral species. Two additional peptides, Hact-4 and Hact-SCRiP1, with limited sequence similarity, both contain a beta-defensin-like fold and highlight a structural link with the small cysteine-rich proteins (SCRiP) family of proteins found predominantly in corals. Our results provide a first glimpse into the remarkable and unexplored structural diversity of coral peptides, providing insight into their diversity and putative functions and, given the ancient lineage of corals, potential insight into the evolution of structural motifs.

Na-AIP-1 secreted by human hookworms suppresses collagen-induced arthritis.

Proteins from helminths have been posed as new immunomodulatory agents with exciting potential in the treatment of immune-mediated diseases including rheumatoid arthritis (RA). In this study we assess the effects of a helminthic excretory/secretory (ES) protein Na-AIP-1 as monotherapy and in combination with methotrexate (MTX) in the well-described collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) model of RA. CIA was induced in DBA/1 J mice which were treated after the onset of arthritis with Na-AIP-1 monotherapy, MTX or Na-AIP-1 + MTX. The clinical scores for weight, arthritis and paw width were recorded along with joint histology as outcome measures. For the clinical parameters of weight, paw score and paw width, none of the Na-AIP-1 monotherapy, MTX therapy or Na-AIP-1 + MTX combination therapy groups displayed any significant difference when compared to the arthritis control. However, a significant reduction in histological score was identified after both monotherapy (Na-AIP-1: 0.83 ± 0.24 vs Arthritis control: 5.58 ± 1.49, p = 0.0277) and combination therapy (Na-AIP-1 + MTX: 0.55 ± 0.28 vs Arthritis control: 5.58 ± 1.49, p = 0.0233) when compared to arthritis control. Furthermore, Na-AIP-1 as both monotherapy (Na-AIP-1: 0.83 ± 0.24 vs MTX: 5.73 ± 1.82 p = 0.0261) and combination therapy (Na-AIP-1 + MTX: 0.55 ± 0.28 vs MTX: 5.73 ± 1.82, p = 0.0221) also significantly reduced histological score when compared to MTX monotherapy. Na-AIP-1 significantly reduced joint pathology in CIA. The hookworm protein Na-AIP-1 seems to be effective in the treatment of RA as monotherapy and when dosed together with MTX, constituting a potential new candidate for drug development. Research should focus on elucidating the mechanism of Na-AIP-1 action as a means to identify novel targets for therapeutics and to further our current understanding of immunobiology in RA.

Orally Administered Bacillus Spores Expressing an Extracellular Vesicle-Derived Tetraspanin Protect Hamsters Against Challenge Infection With Carcinogenic Human Liver Fluke.

BACKGROUND: The human liver fluke Opisthorchis viverrini is a food-borne trematode that causes hepatobiliary disease in humans throughout Southeast Asia. People become infected by consuming raw or undercooked fish containing metacercariae. Development of a vaccine to prevent or minimize pathology would decrease the risk of severe morbidity, including the development of bile duct cancer. METHODS: We produced an oral vaccine based on recombinant Bacillus subtilis spores expressing the large extracellular loop (LEL) of O. viverrini tetraspanin-2 (Ov-TSP-2), a protein that is abundant on the surface of O. viverrini secreted extracellular vesicles (EVs). Recombinant spores expressing Ov-TSP-2-LEL were orally administered to hamsters prior to challenge infection with O. viverrini metacercariae. RESULTS: Vaccinated hamsters generated serum IgG as well as bile IgG and IgA responses to Ov-TSP-2-LEL, and serum IgG from vaccinated hamsters blocked the uptake of fluke EVs by a human bile duct epithelial cell line. Vaccinated hamsters had 56% reductions in both adult flukes and fecal eggs compared to the control group. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that oral vaccination of hamsters with recombinant B. subtilis spores expressing Ov-TSP-2-LEL is efficacious at reducing infection intensity and could form the basis of a vaccine for control of carcinogenic liver fluke infection in humans.

Novel cholinesterase paralogs of Schistosoma mansoni have perceived roles in cholinergic signalling and drug detoxification and are essential for parasite survival.

Cholinesterase (ChE) function in schistosomes is essential for orchestration of parasite neurotransmission but has been poorly defined with respect to the molecules responsible. Interrogation of the S. mansoni genome has revealed the presence of three ChE domain-containing genes (Smche)s, which we have shown to encode two functional acetylcholinesterases (AChE)s (Smache1 -smp_154600 and Smache2 -smp_136690) and a butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) (Smbche1 -smp_125350). Antibodies to recombinant forms of each SmChE localized the proteins to the tegument of adults and schistosomula and developmental expression profiling differed among the three molecules, suggestive of functions extending beyond traditional cholinergic signaling. For the first time in schistosomes, we identified ChE enzymatic activity in fluke excretory/secretory (ES) products and, using proteomic approaches, attributed this activity to the presence of SmAChE1 and SmBChE1. Parasite survival in vitro and in vivo was significantly impaired by silencing of each smche, either individually or in combination, attesting to the essential roles of these molecules. Lastly, in the first characterization study of a BChE from helminths, evidence is provided that SmBChE1 may act as a bio-scavenger of AChE inhibitors as the addition of recombinant SmBChE1 to parasite cultures mitigated the effect of the anti-schistosome AChE inhibitor 2,2- dichlorovinyl dimethyl phosphate-dichlorvos (DDVP), whereas smbche1-silenced parasites displayed increased sensitivity to DDVP.

Inflammasome-Independent Role for NLRP3 in Controlling Innate Antihelminth Immunity and Tissue Repair in the Lung.

Alternatively activated macrophages are essential effector cells during type 2 immunity and tissue repair following helminth infections. We previously showed that Ym1, an alternative activation marker, can drive innate IL-1R-dependent neutrophil recruitment during infection with the lung-migrating nematode, Nippostrongylus brasiliensis, suggesting a potential role for the inflammasome in the IL-1-mediated innate response to infection. Although inflammasome proteins such as NLRP3 have important proinflammatory functions in macrophages, their role during type 2 responses and repair are less defined. We therefore infected Nlrp3 -/- mice with N. brasiliensis Unexpectedly, compared with wild-type (WT) mice, infected Nlrp3 -/- mice had increased neutrophilia and eosinophilia, correlating with enhanced worm killing but at the expense of increased tissue damage and delayed lung repair. Transcriptional profiling showed that infected Nlrp3 -/- mice exhibited elevated type 2 gene expression compared with WT mice. Notably, inflammasome activation was not evident early postinfection with N. brasiliensis, and in contrast to Nlrp3 -/- mice, antihelminth responses were unaffected in caspase-1/11-deficient or WT mice treated with the NLRP3-specific inhibitor MCC950. Together these data suggest that NLRP3 has a role in constraining lung neutrophilia, helminth killing, and type 2 immune responses in an inflammasome-independent manner.

Lipopeptide-Based Oral Vaccine Against Hookworm Infection.

BACKGROUND: The human hookworm, Necator americanus, is a parasite that infects almost half a billion people worldwide. Although treatment is available, vaccination is favorable to combat the spread of this parasite due to its wide distribution and continuous reinfection cycle in endemic communities. METHODS: We have designed a lipopeptide oral delivery system using a B-cell epitope derived from the aspartic protease Na-APR-1 from N americanus, attached to a T-helper epitope. Lipopeptides were self-assembled into nanoparticles or entrapped in liposomes that were electrostatically coated with alginate and trimethyl chitosan polymer shields. The adjuvant-free vaccine candidates were orally administered to mice and generated a humoral immune response against both peptide antigen, and the parent protein in the hookworm gut. RESULTS: The vaccine candidates were evaluated in a rodent hookworm challenge model, resulting in up to 98% and 99% decreases in mean intestinal worm and egg burdens in immunized mice, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Lipopeptide survived the gastrointestinal conditions, induced humoral immune responses and drived protection against parasite challenge infection.

A novel blood-feeding detoxification pathway in Nippostrongylus brasiliensis L3 reveals a potential checkpoint for arresting hookworm development.

As part of on-going efforts to control hookworm infection, the "human hookworm vaccine initiative" has recognised blood feeding as a feasible therapeutic target for inducing immunity against hookworm infection. To this end, molecular approaches have been used to identify candidate targets, such as Necator americanus (Na) haemoglobinase aspartic protease-1 (APR-1), with immunogenicity profiled in canine and hamster models. We sought to accelerate the immune analysis of these identified therapeutic targets by developing an appropriate mouse model. Here we demonstrate that Nippostrongylus brasiliensis (Nb), a phylogenetically distant strongylid nematode of rodents, begins blood feeding early in its development and that immunisation with Na-APR-1 can block its growth and completion of its life cycle. Furthermore, we identify a new haem detoxification pathway in Nb required for blood feeding that can be blocked by drugs of the quinolone family, reducing both infection burden and the associated anaemia in rodents. Collectively, our findings show that haem metabolism has potential as a checkpoint for interrupting hookworm development in early stages of the hookworm life cycle and that the Nippostrongylus brasiliensis rodent model is relevant for identifying novel therapeutic targets against human hookworm.

Identification and Characterization of a Peptide from the Stony Coral Heliofungia actiniformis.

Marine organisms produce a diverse range of toxins and bioactive peptides to support predation, competition, and defense. The peptide repertoires of stony corals (order Scleractinia) remain relatively understudied despite the presence of tentacles used for predation and defense that are likely to contain a range of bioactive compounds. Here, we show that a tentacle extract from the mushroom coral, Heliofungia actiniformis, contains numerous peptides with a range of molecular weights analogous to venom profiles from species such as cone snails. Using NMR spectroscopy and mass spectrometry we characterized a 12-residue peptide (Hact-1) with a new sequence (GCHYTPFGLICF) and well-defined ß-hairpin structure stabilized by a single disulfide bond. The sequence is encoded within the genome of the coral and expressed in the polyp body tissue. The structure present is common among toxins and venom peptides, but Hact-1 does not show activity against select examples of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria or a range of ion channels, common properties of such peptides. Instead, it appears to have a limited effect on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells, but the ecological function of the peptide remains unknown. The discovery of this peptide from H. actiniformis is likely to be the first of many from this and related species.

New Insights Into the Kinetics and Variability of Egg Excretion in Controlled Human Hookworm Infections.

Four healthy volunteers were infected with 50 Necator americanus infective larvae (L3) in a controlled human hookworm infection trial and followed for 52 weeks. The kinetics of fecal egg counts in volunteers was assessed with Bayesian multilevel analysis, which revealed an increase between weeks 7 and 13, followed by an egg density plateau of about 1000 eggs/g of feces. Variation in egg counts was minimal between same-day measurements but varied considerably between days, particularly during the plateau phase. These analyses pave the way for the controlled human hookworm model to accelerate drug and vaccine efficacy studies.