Extended optical treatment versus early patching with an intensive patching regimen in children with amblyopia in Europe (EuPatch): a multicentre, randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Amblyopia, the most common visual impairment of childhood, is a public health concern. An extended period of optical treatment before patching is recommended by the clinical guidelines of several countries. The aim of this study was to compare an intensive patching regimen, with and without extended optical treatment (EOT), in a randomised controlled trial. METHODS: EuPatch was a randomised controlled trial conducted in 30 hospitals in the UK, Greece, Austria, Germany, and Switzerland. Children aged 3-8 years with newly detected, untreated amblyopia (defined as an interocular difference ≥0·30 logarithm of the minimum angle of resolution [logMAR] best corrected visual acuity [BCVA]) due to anisometropia, strabismus, or both were eligible. Participants were randomly assigned (1:1) via a computer-generated sequence to either the EOT group (18 weeks of glasses use before patching) or to the early patching group (3 weeks of glasses use before patching), stratified for type and severity of amblyopia. All participants were initially prescribed an intensive patching regimen (10 h/day, 6 days per week), supplemented with motivational materials. The patching period was up to 24 weeks. Participants, parents or guardians, assessors, and the trial statistician were not masked to treatment allocation. The primary outcome was successful treatment (ie, ≤0·20 logMAR interocular difference in BCVA) after 12 weeks of patching. Two primary analyses were conducted: the main analysis included all participants, including those who dropped out, but excluded those who did not provide outcome data at week 12 and remained on the study; the other analysis imputed this missing data. All eligible and randomly assigned participants were assessed for adverse events. This study is registered with the International Standard Randomised Controlled Trial Number registry (ISRCTN51712593) and is no longer recruiting. FINDINGS: Between June 20, 2013, and March 12, 2020, after exclusion of eight participants found ineligible after detailed screening, we randomly assigned 334 participants (170 to the EOT group and 164 to the early patching group), including 188 (56%) boys, 146 (44%) girls, and two (1%) participants whose sex was not recorded. 317 participants (158 in the EOT group and 159 in the early patching group) were analysed for the primary outcome without imputation of missing data (median follow-up time 42 weeks [IQR 42] in the EOT group vs 27 weeks [27] in the early patching group). 24 (14%) of 170 participants in the EOT group and ten (6%) of 164 in the early patching group were excluded or dropped out of the study, mostly due to loss to follow-up and withdrawal of consent; ten (6%) in the EOT group and three (2%) in the early patching group missed the 12 week visit but remained on the study. A higher proportion of participants in the early patching group had successful treatment (107 [67%] of 159) than those in the EOT group (86 [54%] of 158; 13% difference; p=0·019) after 12 weeks of patching. No serious adverse events related to the interventions occurred. INTERPRETATION: The results from this trial indicate that early patching is more effective than EOT for the treatment of most children with amblyopia. Our findings also provide data for the personalisation of amblyopia treatments. FUNDING: Action Medical Research, NIHR Clinical Research Network, and Ulverscroft Foundation.

SRPK3 Is Essential for Cognitive and Ocular Development in Humans and Zebrafish, Explaining X-Linked Intellectual Disability.

OBJECTIVE: Intellectual disability is often the outcome of neurodevelopmental disorders and is characterized by significant impairments in intellectual and adaptive functioning. X-linked intellectual disability (XLID) is a subset of these disorders caused by genetic defects on the X chromosome, affecting about 2 out of 1,000 males. In syndromic form, it leads to a broad range of cognitive, behavioral, ocular, and physical disabilities. METHODS: Employing exome or genome sequencing, here we identified 4 missense variants (c.475C > G; p.H159D, c.1373C > A; p.T458N, and c.1585G > A; p.E529K, c.953C > T; p.S318L) and a putative truncating variant (c.1413_1414del; p.Y471*) in the SRPK3 gene in 9 XLID patients from 5 unrelated families. To validate SRPK3 as a novel XLID gene, we established a knockout (KO) model of the SRPK3 orthologue in zebrafish. RESULTS: The 8 patients ascertained postnatally shared common clinical features including intellectual disability, agenesis of the corpus callosum, abnormal eye movement, and ataxia. A ninth case, ascertained prenatally, had a complex structural brain phenotype. Together, these data indicate a pathological role of SRPK3 in neurodevelopmental disorders. In post-fertilization day 5 larvae (free swimming stage), KO zebrafish exhibited severe deficits in eye movement and swim bladder inflation, mimicking uncontrolled ocular movement and physical clumsiness observed in human patients. In adult KO zebrafish, cerebellar agenesis and behavioral abnormalities were observed, recapitulating human phenotypes of cerebellar atrophy and intellectual disability. INTERPRETATION: Overall, these results suggest a crucial role of SRPK3 in the pathogenesis of syndromic X-linked intellectual disability and provide new insights into brain development, cognitive and ocular dysfunction in both humans and zebrafish. ANN NEUROL 2024.

SLC38A8 mutations result in arrested retinal development with loss of cone photoreceptor specialization.

Foveal hypoplasia, optic nerve decussation defects and anterior segment dysgenesis is an autosomal recessive disorder arising from SLC38A8 mutations. SLC38A8 is a putative glutamine transporter with strong expression within the photoreceptor layer in the retina. Previous studies have been limited due to lack of quantitative data on retinal development and nystagmus characteristics. In this multi-centre study, a custom-targeted next generation sequencing (NGS) gene panel was used to identify SLC38A8 mutations from a cohort of 511 nystagmus patients. We report 16 novel SLC38A8 mutations. The sixth transmembrane domain is most frequently disrupted by missense SLC38A8 mutations. Ninety percent of our cases were initially misdiagnosed as PAX6-related phenotype or ocular albinism prior to NGS. We characterized the retinal development in vivo in patients with SLC38A8 mutations using high-resolution optical coherence tomography. All patients had severe grades of arrested retinal development with lack of a foveal pit and no cone photoreceptor outer segment lengthening. Loss of foveal specialization features such as outer segment lengthening implies reduced foveal cone density, which contributes to reduced visual acuity. Unlike other disorders (such as albinism or PAX6 mutations) which exhibit a spectrum of foveal hypoplasia, SLC38A8 mutations have arrest of retinal development at an earlier stage resulting in a more under-developed retina and severe phenotype.

Genotypic and Phenotypic Spectrum of Foveal Hypoplasia: A Multicenter Study.

PURPOSE: To characterize the genotypic and phenotypic spectrum of foveal hypoplasia (FH). DESIGN: Multicenter, observational study. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 907 patients with a confirmed molecular diagnosis of albinism, PAX6, SLC38A8, FRMD7, AHR, or achromatopsia from 12 centers in 9 countries (n = 523) or extracted from publicly available datasets from previously reported literature (n = 384). METHODS: Individuals with a confirmed molecular diagnosis and availability of foveal OCT scans were identified from 12 centers or from the literature between January 2011 and March 2021. A genetic diagnosis was confirmed by sequence analysis. Grading of FH was derived from OCT scans. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Grade of FH, presence or absence of photoreceptor specialization (PRS+ vs. PRS-), molecular diagnosis, and visual acuity (VA). RESULTS: The most common genetic etiology for typical FH in our cohort was albinism (67.5%), followed by PAX6 (21.8%), SLC38A8 (6.8%), and FRMD7 (3.5%) variants. AHR variants were rare (0.4%). Atypical FH was seen in 67.4% of achromatopsia cases. Atypical FH in achromatopsia had significantly worse VA than typical FH (P < 0.0001). There was a significant difference in the spectrum of FH grades based on the molecular diagnosis (chi-square = 60.4, P < 0.0001). All SLC38A8 cases were PRS- (P = 0.003), whereas all FRMD7 cases were PRS+ (P < 0.0001). Analysis of albinism subtypes revealed a significant difference in the grade of FH (chi-square = 31.4, P < 0.0001) and VA (P = 0.0003) between oculocutaneous albinism (OCA) compared with ocular albinism (OA) and Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome (HPS). Ocular albinism and HPS demonstrated higher grades of FH and worse VA than OCA. There was a significant difference (P < 0.0001) in VA between FRMD7 variants compared with other diagnoses associated with FH. CONCLUSIONS: We characterized the phenotypic and genotypic spectrum of FH. Atypical FH is associated with a worse prognosis than all other forms of FH. In typical FH, our data suggest that arrested retinal development occurs earlier in SLC38A8, OA, HPS, and AHR variants and later in FRMD7 variants. The defined time period of foveal developmental arrest for OCA and PAX6 variants seems to demonstrate more variability. Our findings provide mechanistic insight into disorders associated with FH and have significant prognostic and diagnostic value.

Optic Nerve Head and Retinal Abnormalities Associated with Congenital Fibrosis of the Extraocular Muscles.

Congenital fibrosis of the extraocular muscles (CFEOM) is a congenital cranial dysinnervation disorder caused by developmental abnormalities affecting cranial nerves/nuclei innervating the extraocular muscles. Autosomal dominant CFEOM arises from heterozygous missense mutations of KIF21A or TUBB3. Although spatiotemporal expression studies have shown KIF21A and TUBB3 expression in developing retinal ganglion cells, it is unclear whether dysinnervation extends beyond the oculomotor system. We aimed to investigate whether dysinnervation extends to the visual system by performing high-resolution optical coherence tomography (OCT) scans characterizing retinal ganglion cells within the optic nerve head and retina. Sixteen patients with CFEOM were screened for mutations in KIF21A, TUBB3, and TUBB2B. Six patients had apparent optic nerve hypoplasia. OCT showed neuro-retinal rim loss. Disc diameter, rim width, rim area, and peripapillary nerve fiber layer thickness were significantly reduced in CFEOM patients compared to controls (p < 0.005). Situs inversus of retinal vessels was seen in five patients. Our study provides evidence of structural optic nerve and retinal changes in CFEOM. We show for the first time that there are widespread retinal changes beyond the retinal ganglion cells in patients with CFEOM. This study shows that the phenotype in CFEOM extends beyond the motor nerves.

Homozygous stop mutation in AHR causes autosomal recessive foveal hypoplasia and infantile nystagmus.

Herein we present a consanguineous family with three children affected by foveal hypoplasia with infantile nystagmus, following an autosomal recessive mode of inheritance. The patients showed normal electroretinography responses, no signs of albinism, and no anterior segment or brain abnormalities. Upon whole exome sequencing, we identified a homozygous mutation (c.1861C>T;p.Q621*) in the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) gene that perfectly co-segregated with the disease in the larger family. AHR is a ligand-activated transcription factor that has been intensively studied in xenobiotic-induced toxicity. Further, it has been shown to play a physiological role under normal cellular conditions, such as in immunity, inflammatory response and neurogenesis. Notably, knockout of the Ahr gene in mouse impairs optic nerve myelin sheath formation and results in oculomotor deficits sharing many features with our patients: the eye movement disorder in Ahr-/- mice appears early in development and presents as conjugate horizontal pendular nystagmus. We therefore propose AHR to be a novel disease gene for a new, recessively inherited disorder in humans, characterized by infantile nystagmus and foveal hypoplasia.

Loss of MAFB Function in Humans and Mice Causes Duane Syndrome, Aberrant Extraocular Muscle Innervation, and Inner-Ear Defects.

Duane retraction syndrome (DRS) is a congenital eye-movement disorder defined by limited outward gaze and retraction of the eye on attempted inward gaze. Here, we report on three heterozygous loss-of-function MAFB mutations causing DRS and a dominant-negative MAFB mutation causing DRS and deafness. Using genotype-phenotype correlations in humans and Mafb-knockout mice, we propose a threshold model for variable loss of MAFB function. Postmortem studies of DRS have reported abducens nerve hypoplasia and aberrant innervation of the lateral rectus muscle by the oculomotor nerve. Our studies in mice now confirm this human DRS pathology. Moreover, we demonstrate that selectively disrupting abducens nerve development is sufficient to cause secondary innervation of the lateral rectus muscle by aberrant oculomotor nerve branches, which form at developmental decision regions close to target extraocular muscles. Thus, we present evidence that the primary cause of DRS is failure of the abducens nerve to fully innervate the lateral rectus muscle in early development.

The treatment of amblyopia: current practice and emerging trends.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this review is to provide an update on current management and recent research for amblyopia treatment. Part I will review patching, atropine penalization, and pharmacological treatments. Part II will focus on perceptual learning, video gaming, and binocular dichoptic approaches. METHODS: A literature search was performed in PubMed, ClinicalTrials.gov , Google Scholar, and reference lists of retrieved articles until December 20, 2018, for all papers containing "amblyopia treatment" or "amblyopia therapy." We have included RCTs, prospective observational studies, prospective and retrospective cohort studies, pilot studies, and review articles. RESULTS: The mainstay of treatment for amblyopia has been based on increasing visual stimulation of the amblyopic eye by occlusion, atropine, or optical penalization of the dominant eye. It has been established that refractive adaptation alone can significantly enhance visual acuity. However, the duration of optical correction varies between studies and the effectiveness of spectacle wear over early beginning of patching is still under investigation. Additionally, by means of occlusion dose monitors, it was found that adherence to occlusion affects the outcome, as a dose-response relationship exists between adherence and visual acuity. Treatment efficiency declines with age; however, recent evidence indicates cortical plasticity beyond the "critical period" and recommends that an attempt at treatment should be offered to all amblyopic children regardless of age, including those in later childhood. Novel approaches targeted to the restoration of binocular functions, such as perceptual learning, video gaming, and dichoptic training, have shown small effects on visual acuity and have failed to demonstrate non-inferiority over standard treatments. CONCLUSIONS: On review, significant evidence for the successful management of amblyopia, with occlusion therapy and atropine, has been found. However, the management of amblyopia remains challenging, mainly due to compliance issues and suboptimal treatment outcomes during occlusion and atropine penalization. Recent studies have found evidence of new ways of treating amblyopia particularly in regard to binocular treatment although these remain under investigation. Further robust clinical trials on these new treatment modalities are still warranted in order to establish their role in treating amblyopia.

Abnormal retinal development associated with FRMD7 mutations.

Idiopathic infantile nystagmus (IIN) is a genetically heterogeneous disorder, often associated with FRMD7 mutations. As the appearance of the retina is reported to be normal based on conventional fundus photography, IIN is postulated to arise from abnormal cortical development. To determine whether the afferent visual system is involved in FRMD7 mutations, we performed in situ hybridization studies in human embryonic and fetal stages (35 days post-ovulation to 9 weeks post-conception). We show a dynamic retinal expression pattern of FRMD7 during development. We observe expression within the outer neuroblastic layer, then in the inner neuroblastic layer and at 9 weeks post-conception a bilaminar expression pattern. Expression was also noted within the developing optic stalk and optic disk. We identified a large cohort of IIN patients (n = 100), and performed sequence analysis which revealed 45 patients with FRMD7 mutations. Patients with FRMD7 mutations underwent detailed retinal imaging studies using ultrahigh-resolution optical coherence tomography. The tomograms were compared with a control cohort (n = 60). The foveal pit was significantly shallower in FRMD7 patients (P < 0.0001). The optic nerve head morphology was abnormal with significantly decreased optic disk area, retinal nerve fiber layer thickness, cup area and cup depth in FRMD7 patients (P < 0.0001). This study shows for the first time that abnormal afferent system development is associated with FRMD7 mutations and could be an important etiological factor in the development of nystagmus.

Retinal development in albinism: a prospective study using optical coherence tomography in infants and young children.

BACKGROUND: Retinal development normally involves migration of the inner retinal layers away from the fovea, migration of the cone photoreceptors into the fovea, and elongation of the photoreceptors over time. This process is arrested prematurely in albinism. However, because retinal development continues at least until the age of 4 years, when development arrests in albinism is uncertain. In this study we outlined the time course of retinal development in children with albinism. METHODS: We studied 44 children with a diagnosis of albinism and 223 control participants. All participants were aged between 0 and 6 years. We obtained 219 mixed cross-sectional and longitudinal optical coherence tomography examinations in the albinism group and compared them with 558 control examinations. Retinal layer segmentation was performed with ImageJ software. Generalised linear mixed regression modelling was used to analyse group differences in retinal development. FINDINGS: In the albinism group, inner retinal layer migration from the fovea was delayed and arrested prematurely, resulting in a significantly thicker central macular thickness than in the control group (p<0·0001). Whereas the central macular thickness increased with age in the control group, in the albinism group it initially decreased with age as a result of continuing regression of the inner retinal layers (p=0·041). The perifoveal retinal thickness was significantly decreased in albinism from a reduction of both inner (p<0·0001) and outer (p<0·0001) retinal layer thicknesses. There was evidence that the photoreceptor layers across the fovea were elongating in albinism, albeit at a reduced rate, compared with the control group. This difference was most apparent for the foveal photoreceptor inner segment (p=0·001). INTERPRETATION: Our findings show that perturbations exist in several aspects of retinal development including the migration and differentiation of the neuronal cells within the retina. We showed continuing regression of the inner retinal layers and elongation of the photoreceptor layers suggesting residual plasticity of the developing albino retina. This finding is important because treatment at the earliest stages of the condition might normalise retinal development and optimise vision. FUNDING: UK Medical Research Council (grant number MR/J004189/1), Ulverscroft Foundation, National Eye Research Centre, Nystagmus Network UK.

The Development of a Nystagmus-Specific Quality-of-Life Questionnaire.

PURPOSE: To develop a nystagmus-specific quality-of-life (QOL) questionnaire derived from patient concerns based on eudaimonic aspects of well-being. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 206 participants with nystagmus for factor analysis phase and an additional 42 participants with nystagmus for construct validity phase. METHODS: Questionnaire items were written on the basis of the 6 domains of everyday living affected by nystagmus that were elicited by previous semistructured interviews conducted with 21 people with nystagmus. After consultation with 8 nystagmus experts, 37 items were administered to 206 people with nystagmus. Factor analysis was used to identify latent factors among the items and identify items to propose new nystagmus QOL scales. Cronbach's alpha was used to assess the internal reliability of the new scales. To assess for discriminate and concurrent validity between the new nystagmus scales and an existing vision-related QOL tool, the Visual Function Questionnaire-25 (VFQ-25) was administered to 42 additional participants. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Questionnaire response scores on nystagmus-specific QOL items. RESULTS: The factor analysis revealed the retention of 29 items to form a measure comprising 2 distinct subscales reflecting "personal and social" and "physical and environmental" functioning as relating to nystagmus-specific QOL. The Cronbach's alpha coefficients for the "personal and social" functioning scale and "physical and environmental" functioning were 0.95 and 0.93, respectively. Tests for validity of the measure, consistent with a priori predictions, when compared with the VFQ-25, revealed the "physical and environmental" subscale showed concurrent validity (0.88), whereas the "personal and social" subscale was demonstrated to have discriminative validity (0.81). CONCLUSIONS: We have developed a 29-item, nystagmus-specific QOL questionnaire (NYS-29) based on eudaimonic aspects of well-being with subscales that address not only physical functioning but also psycho-social issues. The NYS-29 is grounded in the perspectives and concerns of those who have nystagmus and can be used to determine the impact of nystagmus on daily living in terms of both physical and psychosocial aspects.

Optic Nerve Head Development in Healthy Infants and Children Using Handheld Spectral-Domain Optical Coherence Tomography.

PURPOSE: To determine feasibility of optic nerve head (ONH) imaging and to characterize ONH development in full-term infants without sedation using handheld spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD OCT). DESIGN: Prospective cross-sectional study. PARTICIPANTS: Three hundred fifty-two children aged between 1 day and 13 years. METHODS: All participants were imaged using handheld SD OCT without sedation during a single scan session. The percentage of successful scans was calculated. Interexaminer reproducibility and differences between right and left eyes were assessed using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs). Images were analyzed using ImageJ software. The developmental trajectories over time for ONH parameters were calculated using fractional polynomial modelling. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Disc and cup diameter (expressed as distance in micrometers and visual angle in degrees), cup depth, Bruch's membrane opening-minimum rim width (BMO-MRW), retinal thickness, and retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL; 1700 µm and 6° from the disc center). RESULTS: On average, 70% of participants were imaged successfully. Interexaminer reliability was excellent (ICC, >0.89) for diametric and retinal thickness parameters. Right and left eyes were similar for diametric measurements (ICC, >0.79), but more variable for nasal BMO-MRW, RNFL, and retinal thickness. The mean disc and cup diameter increase by 30% and 40%, respectively, between birth and 13 years of age when expressed as a distance measure, but remained constant (at 5°-5.5° and 2°, respectively) when expressed as a visual angle with reference to the eye nodal point. The peripapillary temporal RNFL demonstrated a marked initial decrease of nearly 35% between birth and approximately 18 months of age. This was followed by a slow increase up to 12 years of age when measured at 1700 µm from the disc center, although there was little change when measured at 6° from the disc center. CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrated feasibility of handheld SD OCT imaging of the ONH in full-term infants and children without anaesthesia or sedation. This is the first in vivo handheld SD OCT study to describe the development of ONH parameters during the critical early years of visual maturation. Our results provide a normative database for use in routine practice and further studies of ONH pathologic features.

Diagnostic potential of iris cross-sectional imaging in albinism using optical coherence tomography.

PURPOSE: To characterize in vivo anatomic abnormalities of the iris in albinism compared with healthy controls using anterior segment optical coherence tomography (AS-OCT) and to explore the diagnostic potential of this technique for albinism. We also investigated the relationship between iris abnormalities and other phenotypical features of albinism. DESIGN: Prospective cross-sectional study. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 55 individuals with albinism and 45 healthy controls. METHODS: We acquired 4.37×4.37-mm volumetric scans (743 A-scans, 50 B-scans) of the nasal and temporal iris in both eyes using AS-OCT (3-µm axial resolution). Iris layers were segmented and thicknesses were measured using ImageJ software. Iris transillumination grading was graded using Summers and colleagues' classification. Retinal OCT, eye movement recordings, best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA), visual evoked potential (VEP), and grading of skin and hair pigmentation were used to quantify other phenotypical features associated with albinism. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Iris AS-OCT measurements included (1) total iris thickness, (2) stroma/anterior border (SAB) layer thickness, and (3) posterior epithelial layer (PEL) thickness. Correlation with other phenotypical measurements, including (1) iris transillumination grading, (2) retinal layer measurements at the fovea, (3) nystagmus intensity, (4) BCVA, (5) VEP asymmetry, (6) skin pigmentation, and (7) hair pigmentation (of head hair, lashes, and brows). RESULTS: The mean iris thickness was 10.7% thicker in controls (379.3 ± 44.0 µm) compared with the albinism group (342.5 ± 52.6 µm; P>0.001), SAB layers were 5.8% thicker in controls (315.1 ± 43.8 µm) compared with the albinism group (297.7 ± 50.0 µm; P=0.044), and PEL was 44.0% thicker in controls (64.1 ± 11.7 µm) compared with the albinism group (44.5 ± 13.9 µm; P<0.0001). The most ciliary quartile of the PEL yielded a sensitivity of 85% and specificity of 78% for detecting albinism. Phenotypic features of albinism, such as skin and hair pigmentation, BCVA, and nystagmus intensity, were significantly correlated to AS-OCT iris thickness measurements. CONCLUSIONS: We have characterized in vivo abnormalities of the iris associated with albinism for the first time and show that PEL thickness is particularly affected. We demonstrate that PEL thickness has diagnostic potential for detecting iris abnormalities in albinism. Anterior segment OCT iris measurements are significantly correlated to BCVA and nystagmus intensity in contrast to iris transillumination grading measurements that were not. FINANCIAL DISCLOSURE(S): The author(s) have no proprietary or commercial interest in any materials discussed in this article.

Potential of handheld optical coherence tomography to determine cause of infantile nystagmus in children by using foveal morphology.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the feasibility of handheld (HH) ultra-high-resolution spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) in young children with nystagmus, to determine its sensitivity and specificity in classifying foveal abnormalities, and to investigate its potential to determine the cause of infantile nystagmus with the use of foveal morphology. DESIGN: Prospective, case-control study. PARTICIPANTS AND CONTROLS: A total of 50 patients with nystagmus and 50 healthy control subjects (mean age, 3.2 years; range, 0-8 years). METHODS: Each patient was scanned using HH SD-OCT (Bioptigen Inc., Research Triangle Park, NC) without sedation, and foveal morphology was classified into 1 of 4 categories: (1) typical foveal hypoplasia (predicting clinical diagnosis of albinism, PAX6 mutations, or isolated foveal hypoplasia); (2) atypical foveal hypoplasia (predicting achromatopsia); (3) other foveal changes (corresponding to retinal dystrophies); and (4) normal fovea (predicting idiopathic or manifest latent nystagmus). An independent interpretation of the HH SD-OCT scans by masked examiners was performed, and the sensitivity and specificity of the predicted diagnosis were calculated. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The success rate of image acquisition and sensitivity and specificity of the HH SD-OCT in classifying foveal abnormalities. RESULTS: In 94% of examinations, HH SD-OCT was successful. Twenty-three patients had typical foveal hypoplasia (category 1). Of these patients, 21 were diagnosed with albinism and 2 were diagnosed with PAX6 mutations. Five patients were classified as atypical (category 2) and diagnosed with achromatopsia. Six patients had other abnormal foveal morphology (category 3) and were diagnosed with retinal dystrophy. Sixteen patients had normal foveal morphology (category 4). Of these patients, 12 were diagnosed with idiopathic nystagmus and 4 were diagnosed with manifest latent nystagmus. Sensitivities of HH SD-OCT for classifying typical or atypical foveal hypoplasia, other abnormal foveal morphology, and normal morphology were 92.8%, 86.7%, 41.1%, and 88.4%, respectively, with specificities of 91.4%, 94.8%, 97.7% and 95.1%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrate excellent feasibility of HH SD-OCT in the diagnosis of conditions associated with infantile nystagmus. The HH SD-OCT classification of foveal abnormalities was highly sensitive and specific. This classification was used to determine the underlying cause of infantile nystagmus. Handheld SD-OCT in early childhood can facilitate focused investigations and earlier diagnosis. This is important in an era when potentially time-sensitive treatment, such as gene therapy, is imminent.

Retinal Development in Infants and Young Children With Albinism: Evidence for Plasticity in Early Childhood.

MEETING PRESENTATION: Presented at the 2016 Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology meeting and at the 2015 British Isles Paediatric, Ophthalmology and Strabismus Association meeting. PURPOSE: To investigate the time course of foveal development after birth in infants with albinism. DESIGN: Prospective, comparative cohort optical coherence tomography study. METHODS: Thirty-six children with albinism were recruited. All participants were between 0 and 6 years of age and were seen at Leicester Royal Infirmary. A total of 181 mixed cross-sectional and longitudinal optical coherence tomography examinations were obtained, which were analyzed for differences in retinal development in comparison to 297 cross-sectional control examinations. RESULTS: Normal retinal development involves migration of the inner retinal layers (IRLs) away from the fovea, migration of the cone photoreceptors into the fovea, and elongation of the outer retinal layers (ORLs) over time. In contrast to controls where IRL migration from the fovea was almost completed at birth, a significant degree of IRL migration was taking place after birth in albinism, before arresting prematurely at 40 months postmenstrual age (PMA). This resulted in a significantly thicker central macular thickness in albinism (Δ = 83.8 ± 6.1, P < .0001 at 69 months PMA). There was evidence of ongoing foveal ORL elongation in albinism, although reduced in amplitude compared with control subjects after 21 months PMA (Δ = -17.3 ± 4.3, P < .0001). CONCLUSIONS: We have demonstrated evidence of ongoing retinal development in young children with albinism, albeit at a reduced rate and magnitude compared with control subjects. The presence of a period of retinal plasticity in early childhood raises the possibility that treatment modalities, which aim to improve retinal development, could potentially optimize visual function in albinism.

Eye movement defects in KO zebrafish reveals SRPK3 as a causative gene for an X-linked intellectual disability.

Intellectual disability (ID) is a common neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by significantly impaired intellectual and adaptive functioning. X-linked ID (XLID) disorders, caused by defects in genes on the X chromosome, affect 1.7 out of 1,000 males. Employing exome sequencing, we identified three missense mutations (c.475C>G; p.H159D, c.1373C>A; p.T458N, and c.1585G>A; p.E529K) in the SRPK3 gene in seven XLID patients from three independent families. Clinical features common to the patients are intellectual disability, agenesis of the corpus callosum, abnormal smooth pursuit eye movement, and ataxia. SRPK proteins are known to be involved in mRNA processing and, recently, synaptic vesicle and neurotransmitter release. In order to validate SRPK3 as a novel XLID gene, we established a knockout (KO) model of the SRPK3 orthologue in zebrafish. In day 5 of larval stage, KO zebrafish showed significant defects in spontaneous eye movement and swim bladder inflation. In adult KO zebrafish, we found agenesis of cerebellar structures and impairments in social interaction. These results suggest an important role of SRPK3 in eye movements, which might reflect learning problems, intellectual disability, and other psychiatric disorders.

Current and emerging treatments for albinism.

Albinism is a group of rare inherited disorders arising from impairment of melanin biosynthesis. The reduction of melanin synthesis leads to hypopigmentation of the skin and eyes. A wide range of ophthalmic manifestations arise from albinism, including reduction of visual acuity, nystagmus, strabismus, iris translucency, foveal hypoplasia, fundus hypopigmentation, and abnormal decussation of retinal ganglion cell axons at the optic chiasm. Currently, albinism is incurable, and treatment aims either surgically or pharmacologically to optimize vision and protect the skin; however, novel therapies that aim to directly address the molecular errors of albinism, such as l-dihydroxyphenylalanine and nitisinone, are being developed and have entered human trials though with limited success. Experimental gene-based strategies for editing the genetic errors in albinism have also met early success in animal models. The emergence of these new therapeutic modalities represents a new era in the management of albinism. We focus on the known genetic subtypes, clinical assessment, and existing and emerging therapeutic options for the nonsyndromic forms of albinism.

Discordant phenotypes in twins with infantile nystagmus.

Infantile nystagmus (IN) may result from aetiologies including albinism and FRMD7 mutations. IN has low prevalence, and twins with IN are rare. Whilst discordant presentation has been previously reported for IN, we present for the first time the comprehensive assessment of diagnostically discordant monozygotic twins. From a cohort of over 2000 patients, we identified twins and triplets discordant for nystagmus. Using next-generation sequencing, high-resolution infra-red pupil tracking and optical coherence tomography, we characterised differences in genotype and phenotype. Monozygotic twins (n = 1), dizygotic twins (n = 3) and triplets (n = 1) were included. The monozygotic twins had concordant TYR variants. No causative variants were identified in the triplets. Dizygotic twins had discordant variants in TYR, OCA2 and FRMD7. One unaffected co-twin demonstrated sub-clinical nystagmus. Foveal hypoplasia (FH) was noted in four of five probands. Both co-twins of the monozygotic pair and triplets displayed FH. In three families, at least one parent had FH without nystagmus. FH alone may be insufficient to develop nystagmus. Whilst arrested optokinetic reflex pathway development is implicated in IN, discordant twins raise questions regarding where differences in development have arisen. In unaffected monozygotes therefore, genetic variants may predispose to oculomotor instability, with variable expressivity possibly responsible for the discordance observed.