A Heat Transfer Model and Supporting Experiments to Guide the Uniform Gelation of Molecular Oleogels During Scale-up.

The quest for novel vegetable oil structuring strategies has been progressing since the discovery of the deleterious impacts of trans fats. Although oleogelation using bioderived molecular gelators has been proven to be successful as an alternative to traditional hydrogenation methods, efforts are needed to meet the industrial requirements. A major constraint during the fabrication of oleogels is to achieve consistency in physical properties during scale-up. Experiments showed that gelation fails to occur when larger volumes were prepared based on the minimum gelation concentration (MGC) of gelators, determined using the smallest oil volume (1 mL), a general laboratory practice. This observation was consistent with all the molecular gelators used in this study; sorbitol dioctanoate, mannitol dioctanoate, and 12-hydroxystearic acid. To understand this behavior, a mathematical model was developed since gelator network propagation is governed by the cooling rate. The model indicates that maintenance of a minimal thermal gradient via uniform heat dissipation and gelation time is necessary to achieve homogeneous gel propagation across the vial. With these predictions, we hypothesized and confirmed that oleogels with constant surface area-to-volume ratio could result in identical gelation times and consistent physical properties (MGC, melting temperature, melting enthalpy, yield stress, solid phase content, and oil binding capacity) during scale-up.

Differential Surface Adsorption Phenomena for Conventional and Novel Surfactants Correlates with Changes in Interfacial mAb Stabilization.

Protein adsorption on surfaces can result in loss of drug product stability and efficacy during the production, storage, and administration of protein-based therapeutics. Surface-active agents (excipients) are typically added in protein formulations to prevent undesired interactions of proteins on surfaces and protein particle formation/aggregation in solution. The objective of this work is to understand the molecular-level competitive adsorption mechanism between the monoclonal antibody (mAb) and a commercially used excipient, polysorbate 80 (PS80), and a novel excipient, N-myristoyl phenylalanine-N-polyetheramine diamide (FM1000). The relative rate of adsorption of PS80 and FM1000 was studied by pendant bubble tensiometry. We find that FM1000 saturates the interface faster than PS80. Additionally, the surface-adsorbed amounts from X-ray reflectivity (XRR) measurements show that FM1000 blocks a larger percentage of interfacial area than PS80, indicating that a lower bulk FM1000 surface concentration is sufficient to prevent protein adsorption onto the air/water interface. XRR models reveal that with an increase in mAb concentration (0.5-2.5 mg/mL: IV based formulations), an increased amount of PS80 concentration (below critical micelle concentration, CMC) is required, whereas a fixed value of FM1000 concentration (above its relatively lower CMC) is sufficient to inhibit mAb adsorption, preventing mAb from co-existing with surfactants on the surface layer. With this observation, we show that the CMC of the surfactant is not the critical factor to indicate its ability to inhibit protein adsorption, especially for chemically different surfactants, PS80 and FM1000. Additionally, interface-induced aggregation studies indicate that at minimum surfactant concentration levels in protein formulations, fewer protein particles form in the presence of FM1000. Our results provide a mechanistic link between the adsorption of mAbs at the air/water interface and the aggregation induced by agitation in the presence of surfactants.

Mixture Effect on the Dilatation Rheology of Asphaltenes-Laden Interfaces.

Asphaltenes are a solubility class of crude oils comprising polyaromatic and heterocyclic molecules with different interfacial activities. The previously neglected effects of compositional mixture on dilatational rheology are discussed in the light of diffusional relaxation models. It is demonstrated that the reported deviations from the Lucassen-van den Tempel model for a single-component solution could largely originate from a distribution in adsorption coefficients within the asphaltenes class. This particularly applies to the peculiar gel point rheology previously ascribed to asphaltenes cross-linking at the interface. Furthermore, an extensive bibliographical review shows that asphaltenes dilatational rheology data always verify the main features of diffusional relaxation, including a decrease in modulus at high bulk concentrations and phase shift values always lower than 45°. Using diffusional relaxation concepts, the reanalysis of the most extensive dataset so far confirmed recently published studies, showing that asphaltenes exhibit a unique equation of state (EOS) irrespective of adsorption conditions. This EOS proves to be very similar for bitumen and petroleum asphaltenes. Finally, a numerical application of a binary diffusional model proved efficient to capture both dynamic interfacial tension and dilatational rheology, with the same parameters. It appears that a minority of asphaltenes (less than 10%) have a much stronger interfacial activity than the bulk of them, as previously demonstrated by fractionation. These results open up the need for a reinterpretation of the physical mechanisms of asphaltenes adsorption in terms of classical amphiphilic behavior, with a potential impact on emulsion breaking and enhanced oil recovery strategies.

Switchable Hydrolase Based on Reversible Formation of Supramolecular Catalytic Site Using a Self-Assembling Peptide.

The reversible regulation of catalytic activity is a feature found in natural enzymes which is not commonly observed in artificial catalytic systems. Here, we fabricate an artificial hydrolase with pH-switchable activity, achieved by introducing a catalytic histidine residue at the terminus of a pH-responsive peptide. The peptide exhibits a conformational transition from random coil to ß-sheet by changing the pH from acidic to alkaline. The ß-sheet self-assembles to form long fibrils with the hydrophobic edge and histidine residues extending in an ordered array as the catalytic microenvironment, which shows significant esterase activity. Catalytic activity can be reversible switched by pH-induced assembly/disassembly of the fibrils into random coils. At higher concentrations, the peptide forms a hydrogel which is also catalytically active and maintains its reversible (de-)activation.

Hydrodynamics of Particles at an Oil-Water Interface.

This study is a theoretical and experimental investigation of the hydrodynamics of the mutual approach of two floating spherical particles moving along an oil-water interface. An analytical expression is obtained for the (inertialess) Stokes drag for an isolated particle translating on a flat interface as a function of the immersion depth into the water phase for the case in which the viscosity of the oil is much larger than that of the water. An approximation for the viscous drag due to the mutual approach of identical spheres is formulated as the product of the isolated drag multiplied by the resistance of approaching spheres in an infinite medium. Experiments are undertaken on the capillary attraction of large, millimeter-sized Teflon spheres floating at the interface between a very viscous oil and water. With the use of image visualization and particle tracking, the separation distance as a function of time [[Formula: see text](t)] is measured along with the immersion depth and predicted by setting the capillary attraction force equal to the viscous drag resistance. The excellent agreement validates the approximating formula.

Reduction in aggregation and energy transfer of quantum dots incorporated in polystyrene beads by kinetic entrapment due to cross-linking during polymerization.

We report the development of barcoded polystyrene microbeads, approximately 50 µm in diameter, which are encoded by incorporating multicolored semiconductor fluorescent nanocrystals (quantum dots or QDs) within the microbeads and using the emission spectrum of the embedded QDs as a spectral label. The polymer/nanocrystal bead composites are formed by polymerizing emulsified liquid droplets of styrene monomer and QDs suspended in an immiscible continuous phase (suspension polymerization). We focus specifically on the effect of divinylbenzene (DVB) added to cross-link the linearly growing styrene polymer chains and the effect of this cross-linking on the state of aggregation of the nanocrystals in the composite. Aggregated states of multicolor QDs give rise to nonradiative resonance energy transfer (RET) which distorts the emission label from a spectrum recorded in a reference solvent in which the nanocrystals are well dispersed and unaggregated. A simple barcode is chosen of a mixture of QDs emitting at 560 (yellow) and 620 nm (red). We find that for linear chain growth (no DVB), the QDs aggregate as is evident from the emission spectrum and the QD distribution as seen from confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images. Increasing the extent of cross-linking by the addition of DVB is shown to significantly decrease the aggregation and provide a clear label. We suggest that in the absence of cross-linking, linearly growing polymer chains, through enthalpic and entropic effects, drive the nanocrystals into inclusions, while cross-linking kinetically entraps the particle and prevents their aggregation.

Adsorption of rationally designed "surf-tides" to a liquid-crystal interface.

The interfacial adsorption of proteins in surfactant laden systems occurs both in nature and industrial processing, yet much of the fundamental behavior behind these systems is still not well understood. We report the development of a system that monitors optical transitions of a liquid-crystalline/aqueous interface to examine the dynamics of adsorption of two rationally designed model peptide molecules. The two molecules synthesized in this study were both designed to become surface-active upon folding and contain the same net charge of +3, but one of the peptides, K-2.5, has its three charges separated by 2.5 amino acids as compared to K-6.0, which has its three charges separated by 6 amino acids. Our study examines the roles that surfactant adsorption, peptide charge distribution and secondary structure have on the relative adsorption dynamics of these two models peptides onto a fluid/fluid interface. Using the optical detection of molecular adsorption and image analysis of these events, we obtain quantitative information about the dynamics as a function of the charge spacing and initial peptide concentration. We show that both peptides initially follow a diffusion-limited adsorption model onto the interface. Additionally, our results suggest that the K-6.0 peptides demonstrate enhanced adsorption kinetics, where the enhanced rates are a consequence of the well-folded adsorbed state and spatial distribution on the surface. These findings provide further insights into the role that charge spacing has on secondary structure and subsequently the dynamics of adsorption, while developing a versatile system capable of extracting quantitative information from a simple inexpensive optical system.

Thermocapillary migration of a drop with a thermally conducting stagnant cap.

Hypothesis The thermocapillary migration of a spherical drop with a stagnant cap in the presence of a constant applied temperature gradient can be strongly affected by the finite thermal conductivity of the stagnant cap. Numerics The heat conduction of the stagnant cap is analytically modeled. The effects of the additional interfacial stresses generated by the disturbances to the local temperature field due to the presence of the cap at the fluid-fluid interface and the corresponding velocity of migration of the drop are evaluated by solving for the temperature and hydrodynamic field equations in and around the drop. An asymptotic model is derived to predict the terminal velocity in the presence of an infinitely conducting stagnant cap. Findings The effects of the surface conductivity and size of the stagnation region alongside the bulk thermal conductivities and viscosities of the drop and surrounding media are evaluated. The terminal velocity of the drop is shown to have a monotonic dependence on the conductivity of the stagnant cap. The bounds to the terminal velocity increment due to the stagnant cap are derived. These bounds can be of significance to multiphysics problems involving particle laden drops, Pickering emulsions and other multi-phase technologies where the conductivity of the surface adsorbents is non-negligible.

Molecular dynamics simulation of the motion of colloidal nanoparticles in a solute concentration gradient and a comparison to the continuum limit.

Chemical-mechanical transduction mechanisms which can actuate the movement of colloids through liquids are highly sought after as engines to propel miniaturized micro- and nanobots. One mechanism involves harnessing the long-range van der Waals attractive forces between the colloid and solute molecules dissolved in the liquid around the particle. If a concentration gradient of this solute is applied across the particle, then the imbalance in the van der Waals attraction drives the particle towards the higher concentration of solute. We present a molecular dynamics simulation using Lennard-Jones interactions between molecules of the solvent, solute, and colloid cluster which include short-range repulsive and long-range attractive potentials. The simulations demonstrate that a solute gradient can propel nanosized colloids, and that the velocity decreases with the colloid size. The solute-colloid short-range repulsive interactions are observed to be restricted to a region of specifically adsorbed solutes on the particle surface which are symmetrically adsorbed and do not contribute to the motion. The size of this region provides a cutoff for a continuum level description of the motion, and with this cutoff, continuum calculations are in excellent agreement with the molecular dynamics simulation results, completing a description of the propulsion from the nano- to the microscale.

Surfactant and dilatational viscosity effects on the deformation of liquid droplets in an electric field.

HYPOTHESIS: A conducting droplet suspended in an insulating continuous phase, e.g. an aqueous electrolyte in an oil, is deformed by an applied electric field to nonspherical equilibrium shapes, and can even break-up under strong fields. Many technologies use electro-deformation to manipulate fluid dispersions, with surfactants present on the droplet interfaces forming stabilizing monolayers. While surfactants lower the interface tension which facilitates electro-deformation, the monolayer elasticity resists deformation. High molecular weight surfactants, with large dilatational viscosities, can potentially retard the deformation dynamics. NUMERICS: A boundary integral method simulates the dynamic interfacial deformation of a perfectly conducting droplet in a dielectric in a uniform field. The interface contains an insoluble monolayer which is a Newtonian fluid with constant dilatational viscosity obeying a Langmuir state equation. A range of initial surfactant surface concentrations are studied, with elasticity proportional to concentration. FINDINGS: Equilibrium drop deformations, unaffected by surface viscosity, are strongly resisted by elasticity at high surface concentrations, and field strengths necessary for break-up increase with elasticity. Dilatational viscosity scales with the ratio, κ∗, the surface viscosity (divided by the droplet radius) to the bulk viscosity, and can extend the deformation time. Extended times are described by a time rescaling proportional to κ∗.

Hydrodynamic interactions between charged and uncharged Brownian colloids at a fluid-fluid interface.

HYPOTHESIS: The cluster formation and self-assembly of floating colloids at a fluid/fluid interface is a delicate force balance involving deterministic lateral interaction forces, viscous resistance to relative colloid motion along the surface and thermal (Brownian) fluctuations. As the colloid dimensions get smaller, thermal forces and associated drag forces become important and can affect the self assembly into ordered patterns and crystal structures that are the starting point for various materials applications. NUMERICS: Langevin dynamic simulations for particle pairs straddling a liquid-liquid interface with a high viscosity contrast are presented to describe the lateral interfacial assembly of particles in Brownian and non-Brownian dominated regimes. These simulations incorporate capillary attraction, electrostatic repulsion, thermal fluctuations and hydrodynamic interactions (HI) between particles (including the effect of the particle immersion depth). Simulation results are presented for neutrally wetted particles which form a contact angle θ=900 at the interface. FINDINGS: The simulation results suggest that clustering, fractal growth and particle ordering become favorable outcomes at critically large values of the Pe numbers, while smaller Pe numbers exhibit higher probabilities of final configurations where particle motion remains uncorrelated in space and particle pairs are found to be more widely separated especially upon the introduction of HI.

Solid with infused reactive liquid (SWIRL): A novel liquid-based separation approach for effective CO2 capture.

Economical CO2 capture demands low-energy separation strategies. We use a liquid-infused surface (LIS) approach to immobilize reactive liquids, such as amines, on a textured and thermally conductive solid substrate with high surface-area to volume ratio (A/V) continuum geometry. The infused, micrometer-thick liquid retains that high A/V and directly contacts the gas phase, alleviating mass transport resistance typically encountered in mesoporous solid adsorbents. We name this LIS class "solid with infused reactive liquid" (SWIRL). SWIRL-amine requires no water dilution or costly mixing unlike the current liquid-based commercial approach. SWIRL-tetraethylenepentamine (TEPA) shows stable, high capture capacities at power plant CO2 concentrations near flue gas temperatures, preventing energy-intensive temperature swings needed for other approaches. Water vapor increases CO2 capacity of SWIRL-TEPA without compromising stability.

No ordinary proteins: Adsorption and molecular orientation of monoclonal antibodies.

The interaction of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) with air/water interfaces plays a crucial role in their overall stability in solution. We aim to understand this behavior using pendant bubble measurements to track the dynamic tension reduction and x-ray reflectivity to obtain the electron density profiles (EDPs) at the surface. Native immunoglobulin G mAb is a rigid molecule with a flat, "Y" shape, and simulated EDPs are obtained by rotating a homology construct at the surface. Comparing simulations with experimental EDPs, we obtain surface orientation probability maps showing mAbs transition from flat-on Y-shape configurations to side-on or end-on configurations with increasing concentration. The modeling also shows the presence of ß sheets at the surface. Overall, the experiments and the homology modeling elucidate the orientational phase space during different stages of adsorption of mAbs at the air/water interface. These finding will help define new strategies for the manufacture and storage of antibody-based therapeutics.

Electrochemical Immunosensing of Interleukin-6 in Human Cerebrospinal Fluid and Human Serum as an Early Biomarker for Traumatic Brain Injury.

In this work, we develop a label-free electrochemical immunosensor for the detection of interleukin-6 (IL-6) in human cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and serum for diagnostic and therapeutic monitoring. The IL-6 immunosensor is fabricated from gold interdigitated electrode arrays (IDEAs) that are modified with IL-6 antibodies for direct antigen recognition and capture. A rigorous surface analysis of the sensor architecture was conducted to ensure high structural fidelity and performance. Electrochemical characterization was conducted by cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), and sensing was performed using differential pulse voltammetry (DPV). The DPV peak current was used to quantify IL-6 in buffer, CSF, and serum in the range 1 pg mL-1 < [IL-6] < 1 µg mL-1. The IL-6 IDEA sensor achieved a limit of detection (LOD) of 1.63 pg mL-1 in PBS, 2.34 pg mL-1 in human CSF, and 11.83 pg mL-1 in human serum. The sensor response is linear in the concentration range 10 pg mL-1 < [IL-6] < 10 ng mL-1, and the sensor is selective for IL-6 over other common cytokines, including IL-10 and TNF-α. EIS measurements showed that the resistance to charge transfer, R CT, decreases upon IL-6 binding, an observation attributed to a structural change upon Ab-Ag binding that opens up the architecture so that the redox probe can more easily access the electrode surface. The IL-6 IDEA sensor can be used as a point-of-care diagnostic tool to deliver rapid results (∼3 min) in clinical settings for traumatic brain injury, and potentially address the unmet need for effective diagnostic and prognostic tools for other cytokine-related illnesses, such as sepsis and COVID-19 induced cytokine storms. Given the interdigitated electrode form factor, it is likely that the performance of the sensor can be further improved through redox cycling.

Fluorescence visualization and modeling of a micelle-free zone formed at the interface between an oil and an aqueous micellar phase during interfacial surfactant transport.

This study examines the transport of surfactant that occurs when an aqueous micellar phase is placed in contact with a clean oil phase in which the surfactant is soluble. Upon contact with oil, surfactant monomer on the aqueous side of the interface adsorbs onto the oil/water interface and subsequently desorbs into the oil and diffuses away from the surface. The depletion of aqueous monomer underneath the interface disturbs the monomer-micelle equilibrium, and aggregates break down to replenish the monomer concentration and accelerate the interfacial transport. The depletion of monomer and micelles drives the diffusive flux of these species toward the surface, and the combined effects of diffusion and aggregate kinetic disassembly, alongside kinetic adsorption and desorption at the interface and diffusion away from the interface into the oil, determine the interfacial transport rate. This interfacial transport is examined here in the quasi-static limit in which the diffusion of monomer and micelles in the aqueous phase is much slower than the time scale for micelle disassembly. In this limit, when the initial bulk concentration of micelles in the aqueous solution is small, the micelle diffusive flux to the surface cannot keep up with the micelle breakdown under the interface, and a micelle-free zone forms. This zone extends from the surface into the aqueous phase up to a boundary that demarcates the beginning of a zone, containing micelles, that extends further into the aqueous phase. Micelles diffuse from the micelle zone to the boundary, where they break down, causing the boundary to retreat. Released monomer diffuses through the micelle-free zone and partitions into the oil phase. The focus of this study is to verify this transport picture by visualizing the micelle-free zone and comparing the movement of the zone to predictions obtained from a transport model based on this two-zone picture. A small hydrophobic dye molecule (Nile red) is incorporated into the micelles; the dye fluoresces only in the hydrophobic environment of the micelles, providing visual contrast between the two zones. Through spatial mapping of the fluorescence using confocal microscopy, the movement of the micelle-free zone boundary can be measured and is shown to compare favorably with simulations of the transport model.

Microfluidic Study of the Electrocoalescence of Aqueous Droplets in Crude Oil.

In electrocoalescence, an electric field is applied to a dispersion of conducting water droplets in a poorly conducting oil to force the droplets to merge in the direction of the field. Electrocoalescence is used in petroleum refining to separate water from crude oil and in droplet-based microfluidics to combine droplets of water in oil and to break emulsions. Using a microfluidic design to generate a two-dimensional (2D) emulsion, we demonstrate that electrocoalescence in an opaque crude oil can be visualized with optical microscopy and studied on an individual droplet basis in a chamber whose height is small enough to make the dispersions two dimensional and transparent. From reconstructions of images of the 2D electrocoalescence, the electrostatic forces driving the droplet merging are calculated in a numerically exact manner and used to predict observed coalescence events. Hence, the direct simulation of the electrocoalescence-driven breakdown of 2D emulsions in microfluidic devices can be envisioned.

Armoring the Interface with Surfactants to Prevent the Adsorption of Monoclonal Antibodies.

The pharmaceutical industry uses surface-active agents (excipients) in protein drug formulations to prevent the aggregation, denaturation, and unwanted immunological response of therapeutic drugs in solution as well as at the air/water interface. However, the mechanism of adsorption, desorption, and aggregation of proteins at the interface in the presence of excipients remains poorly understood. The objective of this work is to explore the molecular-scale competitive adsorption process between surfactant-based excipients and two monoclonal antibody (mAb) proteins, mAb-1 and mAb-2. We use pendant bubble tensiometry to measure the ensemble average adsorption dynamics of mAbs with and without the excipient. The surface tension measurements allow us to quantify the rate at which the molecules "race" to the interface in single-component and mixed systems. These results define the phase space, where coadsorption of both mAbs and excipients occurs onto the air/water interface. In parallel, we use X-ray reflectivity (XR) measurements to understand the molecular-scale dynamics of competitive adsorption, revealing the surface-adsorbed amounts of the antibody and excipient. XR has revealed that at a sufficiently high surface concentration of the excipient, mAb adsorption to the surface and subsurface domains was inhibited. In addition, despite the fact that both mAbs adsorb via a similar mechanistic pathway and with similar dynamics, a key finding is that the competition for the interface directly correlates with the surface activity of the two mAbs, resulting in a fivefold difference in the concentration of the excipient needed to displace the antibody.

Imaging and estimating the surface heterogeneity on a droplet containing cosolvents.

Cosolvents have numerous applications in many industries as well as scientific research. The shortage in the knowledge of the structures in a cosolvent system is significant. In this work, we display the spatial as well as the kinetic distribution of the cosolvents using droplets as paradigms. When an alcohol/water-containing sessile droplet evaporates on a substrate, it phase segregates into a water-enriched core and a thin alcohol prevailing shell. This is considered to be due to the different escaping rate of solvents out of the liquid-vapor (l-v) interfaces. In between the core and shell phases, there exists a rough and solid-like liquid-liquid (l-l) wall interface as marked by the fluorescent polystyrene spheres and imaged by a confocal microscope. Holes and patches of beads are observed to form on this phase boundary. The water-dispersed beads prefer to partition within the core. The shell prevails in the droplet during most of the drying and shrinks with the l-v boundary. By monitoring the morphological progression of the droplet, the composition of the cosolvent at the liquid-vapor interface is obtained.

Soil granular dynamics on-a-chip: fluidization inception under scrutiny.

Predicting soil evolution remains a scientific challenge. This process involves poorly understood aspects of disordered granular matter and dense suspension dynamics. This study presents a novel two-dimensional experiment on a small-scale chip structure; this allows the observation of the deformation at the particle scale of a large-grained sediment bed, under conditions where friction dominates over cohesive and thermal forces, and with an imposed fluid flow. Experiments are performed under conditions which span the particle resuspension criterion, and particle motion is detected and analyzed. The void size population and statistics of particle trajectories bring insight into the sediment dynamics near fluidization conditions. Specifically, particle rearrangement and net bed compaction are observed at flow rates significantly below the criterion for instability growth. Above a threshold flowrate, a channel forms and grows in the vertical direction; and eventually it crosses the entire bed. In the range of flow rates where channelization can occur, the coexistence of compacting and dilating bed scenarios is observed. The results of the study enhance our capacity for modeling of both slow dynamics and eventual rapid destabilization of sediment beds. Microfluidic channel soil-on-a-chip studies open avenues to new investigations including dissolution-precipitation, fine particle transport, or micro-organism swimming and population growth, which may depend on the mechanics of the porous medium itself.