SHP2 inhibition displays efficacy as a monotherapy and in combination with JAK2 inhibition in preclinical models of myeloproliferative neoplasms.

Myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs), including polycythemia vera, essential thrombocytosis, and primary myelofibrosis, are clonal hematopoietic neoplasms driven by mutationally activated signaling by the JAK2 tyrosine kinase. Although JAK2 inhibitors can improve MPN patients' quality of life, they do not induce complete remission as disease-driving cells persistently survive therapy. ERK activation has been highlighted as contributing to JAK2 inhibitor persistent cell survival. As ERK is a component of signaling by activated RAS proteins and by JAK2 activation, we sought to inhibit RAS activation to enhance responses to JAK2 inhibition in preclinical MPN models. We found the SHP2 inhibitor RMC-4550 significantly enhanced growth inhibition of MPN cell lines in combination with the JAK2 inhibitor ruxolitinib, effectively preventing ruxolitinib persistent growth, and the growth and viability of established ruxolitinib persistent cells remained sensitive to SHP2 inhibition. Both SHP2 and JAK2 inhibition diminished cellular RAS-GTP levels, and their concomitant inhibition enhanced ERK inactivation and increased apoptosis. Inhibition of SHP2 inhibited the neoplastic growth of MPN patient hematopoietic progenitor cells and exhibited synergy with ruxolitinib. RMC-4550 antagonized MPN phenotypes and increased survival of an MPN mouse model driven by MPL-W515L. The combination of RMC-4550 and ruxolitinib, which was safe and tolerated in healthy mice, further inhibited disease compared to ruxolitinib monotherapy, including extending survival. Given SHP2 inhibitors are undergoing clinical evaluation in patients with solid tumors, our preclinical findings suggest that SHP2 is a candidate therapeutic target with potential for rapid translation to clinical assessment to improve current targeted therapies for MPN patients.

Use of miRNA response sequences to block off-target replication and increase the safety of an unattenuated, glioblastoma-targeted oncolytic HSV.

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is an aggressive brain cancer for which there is no effective treatment. Oncolytic HSV vectors (oHSVs) are attenuated lytic viruses that have shown promise in the treatment of human GBM models in animals, but their efficacy in early phase patient trials has been limited. Instead of attenuating the virus with mutations in virulence genes, we engineered four copies of the recognition sequence for miR-124 into the 3'UTR of the essential ICP4 gene to protect healthy tissue against lytic virus replication; miR-124 is expressed in neurons but not in glioblastoma cells. Following intracranial inoculation into nude mice, the miR-124-sensitive vector failed to replicate or show overt signs of pathogenesis. To address the concern that this safety feature may reduce oncolytic activity, we inserted the miR-124 response elements into an unattenuated, human receptor (EGFR/EGFRvIII)-specific HSV vector. We found that miR-124 sensitivity did not cause a loss of treatment efficiency in an orthotopic model of primary human GBM in nude mice. These results demonstrate that engineered miR-124 responsiveness can eliminate off-target replication by unattenuated oHSV without compromising oncolytic activity, thereby providing increased safety.

Effective treatment of an orthotopic xenograft model of human glioblastoma using an EGFR-retargeted oncolytic herpes simplex virus.

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) remains an untreatable human brain malignancy. Despite promising preclinical studies using oncolytic herpes simplex virus (oHSV) vectors, efficacy in patients has been limited by inefficient virus replication in tumor cells. This disappointing outcome can be attributed in part to attenuating mutations engineered into these viruses to prevent replication in normal cells. Alternatively, retargeting of fully replication-competent HSV to tumor-associated receptors has the potential to achieve tumor specificity without impairment of oncolytic activity. Here, we report the establishment of an HSV retargeting system that relies on the combination of two engineered viral glycoproteins, gD and gB, to mediate highly efficient HSV infection exclusively through recognition of the abundantly expressed epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) on glioblastoma cells. We demonstrate efficacy in vitro and in a heterotopic tumor model in mice. Evidence for systemically administered virus homing to the tumor mass is presented. Treatment of orthotopic primary human GBM xenografts demonstrated prolonged survival with up to 73% of animals showing a complete response as confirmed by magnetic resonance imaging. Our study describes an approach to HSV retargeting that is effective in a glioma model and may be applicable to the treatment of a broad range of tumor types.

BRCA1 interaction of centrosomal protein Nlp is required for successful mitotic progression.

Breast cancer susceptibility gene BRCA1 is implicated in the control of mitotic progression, although the underlying mechanism(s) remains to be further defined. Deficiency of BRCA1 function leads to disrupted mitotic machinery and genomic instability. Here, we show that BRCA1 physically interacts and colocalizes with Nlp, an important molecule involved in centrosome maturation and spindle formation. Interestingly, Nlp centrosomal localization and its protein stability are regulated by normal cellular BRCA1 function because cells containing BRCA1 mutations or silenced for endogenous BRCA1 exhibit disrupted Nlp colocalization to centrosomes and enhanced Nlp degradation. Its is likely that the BRCA1 regulation of Nlp stability involves Plk1 suppression. Inhibition of endogenous Nlp via the small interfering RNA approach results in aberrant spindle formation, aborted chromosomal segregation, and aneuploidy, which mimic the phenotypes of disrupted BRCA1. Thus, BRCA1 interaction of Nlp might be required for the successful mitotic progression, and abnormalities of Nlp lead to genomic instability.

The pan-PIM inhibitor INCB053914 displays potent synergy in combination with ruxolitinib in models of MPN.

Aberrant JAK2 tyrosine kinase signaling drives the development of Philadelphia chromosome-negative myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs), including polycythemia vera, essential thrombocythemia, and primary myelofibrosis. However, JAK2 kinase inhibitors have failed to significantly reduce allele burden in MPN patients, underscoring the need for improved therapeutic strategies. Members of the PIM family of serine/threonine kinases promote cellular proliferation by regulating a variety of cellular processes, including protein synthesis and the balance of signaling that regulates apoptosis. Overexpression of PIM family members is oncogenic, exemplified by their ability to induce lymphomas in collaboration with c-Myc. Thus, PIM kinases are potential therapeutic targets for several malignancies such as solid tumors and blood cancers. We and others have shown that PIM inhibitors augment the efficacy of JAK2 inhibitors by using in vitro models of MPNs. Here we report that the recently developed pan-PIM inhibitor INCB053914 augments the efficacy of the US Food and Drug Administration-approved JAK1/2 inhibitor ruxolitinib in both in vitro and in vivo MPN models. INCB053914 synergizes with ruxolitinib to inhibit cell growth in JAK2-driven MPN models and induce apoptosis. Significantly, low nanomolar INCB053914 enhances the efficacy of ruxolitinib to inhibit the neoplastic growth of primary MPN patient cells, and INCB053914 antagonizes ruxolitinib persistent myeloproliferation in vivo. These findings support the notion that INCB053914, which is currently in clinical trials in patients with advanced hematologic malignancies, in combination with ruxolitinib may be effective in MPN patients, and they support the clinical testing of this combination in MPN patients.

A First-in-Class TWIST1 Inhibitor with Activity in Oncogene-Driven Lung Cancer.

TWIST1, an epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) transcription factor, is critical for oncogene-driven non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) tumorigenesis. Given the potential of TWIST1 as a therapeutic target, a chemical-bioinformatic approach using connectivity mapping (CMAP) analysis was used to identify TWIST1 inhibitors. Characterization of the top ranked candidates from the unbiased screen revealed that harmine, a harmala alkaloid, inhibited multiple TWIST1 functions, including single-cell dissemination, suppression of normal branching in 3D epithelial culture, and proliferation of oncogene driver-defined NSCLC cells. Harmine treatment phenocopied genetic loss of TWIST1 by inducing oncogene-induced senescence or apoptosis. Mechanistic investigation revealed that harmine targeted the TWIST1 pathway through its promotion of TWIST1 protein degradation. As dimerization is critical for TWIST1 function and stability, the effect of harmine on specific TWIST1 dimers was examined. TWIST1 and its dimer partners, the E2A proteins, which were found to be required for TWIST1-mediated functions, regulated the stability of the other heterodimeric partner posttranslationally. Harmine preferentially promoted degradation of the TWIST1-E2A heterodimer compared with the TWIST-TWIST1 homodimer, and targeting the TWIST1-E2A heterodimer was required for harmine cytotoxicity. Finally, harmine had activity in both transgenic and patient-derived xenograft mouse models of KRAS-mutant NSCLC. These studies identified harmine as a first-in-class TWIST1 inhibitor with marked anti-tumor activity in oncogene-driven NSCLC including EGFR mutant, KRAS mutant and MET altered NSCLC.Implications: TWIST1 is required for oncogene-driven NSCLC tumorigenesis and EMT; thus, harmine and its analogues/derivatives represent a novel therapeutic strategy to treat oncogene-driven NSCLC as well as other solid tumor malignancies. Mol Cancer Res; 15(12); 1764-76. ©2017 AACR.

Gadd45a contributes to p53 stabilization in response to DNA damage.

p53 is an important molecule in cellular response to DNA damage. After genotoxic stress, p53 protein stabilizes transiently and accumulates in the nucleus, where it functions as a transcription factor and upregulates multiple downstream-targeted genes, including p21(Waf1/Cip1), Gadd45a and Bax. However, regulation of p53 stabilization is complex and may mainly involve post-translational modification of p53, such as phosphorylation and acetylation. Using mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) derived from Gadd45a knockouts, we found that disruption of Gadd45a greatly abolished p53 protein stabilization following UVB treatment. Phosphorylation of p53 at Ser-15 was substantially reduced in Gadd45a-/- MEFs. In addition, p53 induction by UVB was shown to be greatly abrogated in the presence of p38 kinase inhibitor, but not c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and extracellular-signal regulated kinase (ERK), suggesting that p38 protein kinase is involved in the regulation of p53 induction. Along with the findings presented above, inducible expression of Gadd45a enhanced p53 accumulation after cell exposure to UVB. Taken together, the current study demonstrates that Gadd45a, a conventional downstream gene of p53, may play a role as an upstream effector in p53 stabilization following DNA damage, and thus has defined a positive feedback signal in the activation of the p53 pathway.

GADD45-induced cell cycle G2-M arrest associates with altered subcellular distribution of cyclin B1 and is independent of p38 kinase activity.

In response to DNA damage, the cell cycle checkpoint is an important biological event in maintaining genomic fidelity. Gadd45, a p53-regulated and DNA damage inducible protein, has recently been demonstrated to play a role in the G2-M checkpoint in response to DNA damage. In the current study, we further investigated the biochemical mechanism(s) involved in the GADD45-activated cell cycle G2-M arrest. Using the tetracycline-controlled system (tet-off), we established GADD45-inducible lines in HCT116 (wild-type p53) and Hela (inactivated p53 status) cells. Following inducible expression of the Gadd45 protein, cell growth was strongly suppressed in both HCT116 and Hela cells. Interestingly, HCT116 cells revealed a significant G2-M arrest but Hela cells failed to arrest at the G2-M phases, indicating that the GADD45-activated G2-M arrest requires normal p53 function. The GADD45-induced G2-M arrest was observed independent of p38 kinase activity. Importantly, induction of Gadd45 protein resulted in a reduction of nuclear cyclin B1 protein, whose nuclear localization is critical for the completion of G2-M transition. The reduced nuclear cyclin B1 levels correlated with inhibition of Cdc2/cyclin B1 kinase activity. Additionally, overexpression of cyclin B1 substantially abrogated the GADD45-induced cell growth suppression. Therefore, GADD45 inhibition of Cdc2 kinase activity through alteration of cyclin B1 subcellular localization may be an essential step in the GADD45-induced cell cycle G2-M arrest and growth suppression.

ATF3 induction following DNA damage is regulated by distinct signaling pathways and over-expression of ATF3 protein suppresses cells growth.

Mammalian cells have a remarkable diverse repertoire of response to genotoxic stress that damage DNA. Cellular responses to DNA damaging agents will initially exhibit gene induction, which is regulated by complex mechanism(s) and probably involves multiple signaling pathways. In this paper, we demonstrate that induction of ATF3 protein, a member of the ATF/CREB family of transcription factors, by ionizing radiation (IR) requires normal cellular p53 function. In contrast, induction of ATF3 after UV radiation (UV) or Methyl methanesulphonate (MMS) is independent of p53 status. Induction of ATF3 by DNA damage is rapid, transient, and through a transcriptional mechanism. The ATF3 promoter is induced by UV and MMS, but not by IR. In addition, ATF3 promoter can be activated by MEKK1, an upstream activator of the ERK and JNK kinase pathway, but not induced following p53 expression. Those results indicate that regulation of ATF3 induction after DNA damage utilizes both the p53-dependent and -independent pathways, and may also involve MAP kinase signaling pathways. Using the tetracycline-inducible system (tet-off), we have found that over-expression of ATF3 protein moderately suppresses cell growth. Interestingly, over-expression of ATF3 protein is able to slow down progression of cells from G1 to S phase, indicating that ATF3 protein might play a negative role in the control of cell cycle progression.

The PIM inhibitor AZD1208 synergizes with ruxolitinib to induce apoptosis of ruxolitinib sensitive and resistant JAK2-V617F-driven cells and inhibit colony formation of primary MPN cells.

Classical myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs) are hematopoietic stem cell disorders that exhibit excess mature myeloid cells, bone marrow fibrosis, and risk of leukemic transformation. Aberrant JAK2 signaling plays an etiological role in MPN formation. Because neoplastic cells in patients are largely insensitive to current anti-JAK2 therapies, effective therapies remain needed. Members of the PIM family of serine/threonine kinases are induced by JAK/STAT signaling, regulate hematopoietic stem cell growth, protect hematopoietic cells from apoptosis, and exhibit hematopoietic cell transforming properties. We hypothesized that PIM kinases may offer a therapeutic target for MPNs. We treated JAK2-V617F-dependent MPN model cells as well as primary MPN patient cells with the PIM kinase inhibitors SGI-1776 and AZD1208 and the JAK2 inhibitor ruxolitinib. While MPN model cells were rather insensitive to PIM inhibitors, combination of PIM inhibitors with ruxolitinib led to a synergistic effect on MPN cell growth due to enhanced apoptosis. Importantly, PIM inhibitor mono-therapy inhibited, and AZD1208/ruxolitinib combination therapy synergistically suppressed, colony formation of primary MPN cells. Enhanced apoptosis by combination therapy was associated with activation of BAD, inhibition of downstream components of the mTOR pathway, including p70S6K and S6 protein, and activation of 4EBP1. Importantly, PIM inhibitors re-sensitized ruxolitinib-resistant MPN cells to ruxolitinib by inducing apoptosis. Finally, exogenous expression of PIM1 induced ruxolitinib resistance in MPN model cells. These data indicate that PIMs may play a role in MPNs and that combining PIM and JAK2 kinase inhibitors may offer a more efficacious therapeutic approach for MPNs over JAK2 inhibitor mono-therapy.

Structure-function studies of the bHLH phosphorylation domain of TWIST1 in prostate cancer cells.

The TWIST1 gene has diverse roles in development and pathologic diseases such as cancer. TWIST1 is a dimeric basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factor existing as TWIST1-TWIST1 or TWIST1-E12/47. TWIST1 partner choice and DNA binding can be influenced during development by phosphorylation of Thr125 and Ser127 of the Thr-Gln-Ser (TQS) motif within the bHLH of TWIST1. The significance of these TWIST1 phosphorylation sites for metastasis is unknown. We created stable isogenic prostate cancer cell lines overexpressing TWIST1 wild-type, phospho-mutants, and tethered versions. We assessed these isogenic lines using assays that mimic stages of cancer metastasis. In vitro assays suggested the phospho-mimetic Twist1-DQD mutation could confer cellular properties associated with pro-metastatic behavior. The hypo-phosphorylation mimic Twist1-AQA mutation displayed reduced pro-metastatic activity compared to wild-type TWIST1 in vitro, suggesting that phosphorylation of the TWIST1 TQS motif was necessary for pro-metastatic functions. In vivo analysis demonstrates that the Twist1-AQA mutation exhibits reduced capacity to contribute to metastasis, whereas the expression of the Twist1-DQD mutation exhibits proficient metastatic potential. Tethered TWIST1-E12 heterodimers phenocopied the Twist1-DQD mutation for many in vitro assays, suggesting that TWIST1 phosphorylation may result in heterodimerization in prostate cancer cells. Lastly, the dual phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)-mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitor BEZ235 strongly attenuated TWIST1-induced migration that was dependent on the TQS motif. TWIST1 TQS phosphorylation state determines the intensity of TWIST1-induced pro-metastatic ability in prostate cancer cells, which may be partly explained mechanistically by TWIST1 dimeric partner choice.

Endoplasmic reticulum stress initiates apoptotic death induced by STI571 inhibition of p210 bcr-abl tyrosine kinase.

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the site where proteins destined to either secretion or different subcellular compartments assemble and the major storage of intracellular Ca(2+). The ER stress resulting from a variety of toxic insults leads to apoptosis. Here, we showed that the apoptotic death triggered by STI571, an inhibitor of the p210 bcr-abl tyrosine kinase, in murine myeloid progenitors transducing the p210 bcr-abl tyrosine kinase of Chronic Myeloid Leukemia (CML) proceeds from ER stress. The Bcl-2 dowmodulation and inactivation induced by the binding to its antagonist: Bad, the release of caspase 12 from the ER membranes in its active form and of Ca(2+) from the ER pool addressed towards ER a sensor of STI571-induced pro-apoptotic signal.

p53 loss of function enhances genomic instability and accelerates clonal evolution of murine myeloid progenitors expressing the p(210)BCR-ABL tyrosine kinase.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The p210 bcr-abl fusion protein has a key role in the pathogenesis of chronic myeloid leukemia (CML). However, its influence on disease progression to blast crisis is marginal and mostly due to its effect of impairing the genomic stability of clonal myeloid progenitors through pathways still largely unknown. DESIGN AND METHODS: To elucidate the role of p53 in CML progression we generated, from the 32D murine myeloid cell line, several clones co-expressing the E6 product gene of human papilloma virus (HPV) 16, which abrogates p53 function, and a temperature-sensitive bcr-abl construct encoding a fully active p210 protein only at the permissive temperature of 33 degrees C. RESULTS: Co-expression of the two proteins resulted in a significant enlargement of the G(2)/M phase of cell cycle and in the appearance of a poly-aneuploid cell population. Furthermore, with continuous in vitro passages the p210 tyrosine kinase became dispensable for growth. Increased levels of cyclin B(1) and enhanced activity of its associated cyclin-dependent kinase (cdc2) became apparent during the clonal evolution of p210 bcr-abl-transduced 32D cell clones lacking p53. INTERPRETATION AND CONCLUSIONS: The acceleration of clonal evolution of p210 bcr-abl-transduced 32D myeloid progenitors associated with p53 functional abrogation is consistent with oncosuppressor loss having a key role in CML progression. This would allow emergence of additional genomic aberrations which would lead to the fully transformed phenotype of blast crisis. Deregulated activity of the cyclin B1-cdc2 complex may be involved in the loss of temporal co-ordination of mitotic events and further free the barrier to genomic instability of CML clonal myeloid progenitors lacking p53.

Chk2 drives late G1/early S phase arrest of clonal myeloid progenitors expressing the p210 BCR-ABL tyrosine kinase in response to STI571.

STI571 is the most innovative drug for the cure of Chronic Myeloid Leukemia. It inhibits, in fact, the disease causative event, the p210 bcr-abl tyrosine kinase, and addresses clonal myeloid progenitors to apoptotic death. Here, we demonstrated that STI571 also induces growth arrest by activating the Chk2-Cdc25A-Cdk2 axis, a pathway complementary to p53 in the activation of G(1)/S cell cycle checkpoint. In vitro exposure to STI571 of 32D murine myeloid progenitor cell clones transducing a temperature-sensitive p210 bcr-abl construct was associated with Chk2 phosphorylation and activation, Cdc25A degradation and persistent Cdk2 inhibitory phosphorylation, preventing, in turn, cell transition to and progression throughout the S phase of cell cycle. Chk2 and Cdc25A are both components of a complex network that integrates signals involved in regulated cell cycle progression, DNA repair and cell decision between life or death. Chk2 gene mutations or decreased expression, leading to its protein loss of function on Cdc25A target, and Cdc25A overexpression have been linked to poor prognosis of human cancers. In CML, they might further enhance the proliferative advantage and genomic instability of clonal myeloid progenitors featuring a class of poor prognosis patients eventually resistant to STI571.

Inhibition of Indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) in Glioblastoma Cells by Oncolytic Herpes Simplex Virus.

Successful oncolytic virus treatment of malignant glioblastoma multiforme depends on widespread tumor-specific lytic virus replication and escape from mitigating innate immune responses to infection. Here we characterize a new HSV vector, JD0G, that is deleted for ICP0 and the joint sequences separating the unique long and short elements of the viral genome. We observed that JD0G replication was enhanced in certain glioblastoma cell lines compared to HEL cells, suggesting that a vector backbone deleted for ICP0 may be useful for treatment of glioblastoma. The innate immune response to virus infection can potentially impede oncolytic vector replication in human tumors. Indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) is expressed in response to interferon γ (IFNγ) and has been linked to both antiviral functions and to the immune escape of tumor cells. We observed that IFNγ treatment of human glioblastoma cells induced the expression of IDO and that this expression was quelled by infection with both wild-type and JD0G viruses. The role of IDO in inhibiting virus replication and the connection of this protein to the escape of tumor cells from immune surveillance suggest that IDO downregulation by HSV infection may enhance the oncolytic activity of vectors such as JD0G.

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) oncoprotein K13 bypasses TRAFs and directly interacts with the IkappaB kinase complex to selectively activate NF-kappaB without JNK activation.

Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus oncoprotein vFLIP K13 is a potent activator of NF-kappaB and plays a key role in viral pathogenesis. K13 contains a putative TRAF-interacting motif, which is reportedly required for its interaction with TRAF2. The K13-TRAF2 interaction is believed to be essential for the recruitment of K13 to the I-kappaB kinase (IKK) complex and for K13-induced NF-kappaB and JNK activation. In addition, TRAF3 has been reported to be required for K13-induced NF-kappaB and JNK activation. We have re-examined the role of the TRAFs in K13 signaling and report that mutations in the putative TRAF-interacting motif of K13 have no deleterious effect on its ability to interact with the IKK complex or activation of the NF-kappaB pathway. Furthermore, endogenously expressed TRAF2 and TRAF3 do not interact with K13 and play no role in K13-induced NF-kappaB activation or its interaction with the IKK complex. Finally, K13 does not activate the JNK pathway. Our results support a model in which K13 bypasses the upstream components of the tumor necrosis factor receptor signaling pathway and directly interacts with the IKK complex to selectively activate the NF-kappaB pathway without affecting the JNK pathway. Selective NF-kappaB activation by K13 might represent a novel strategy employed by the virus to promote latency.

K13 blocks KSHV lytic replication and deregulates vIL6 and hIL6 expression: a model of lytic replication induced clonal selection in viral oncogenesis.

BACKGROUND: Accumulating evidence suggests that dysregulated expression of lytic genes plays an important role in KSHV (Kaposi's sarcoma associated herpesvirus) tumorigenesis. However, the molecular events leading to the dysregulation of KSHV lytic gene expression program are incompletely understood. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We have studied the effect of KSHV-encoded latent protein vFLIP K13, a potent activator of the NF-kappaB pathway, on lytic reactivation of the virus. We demonstrate that K13 antagonizes RTA, the KSHV lytic-regulator, and effectively blocks the expression of lytic proteins, production of infectious virions and death of the infected cells. Induction of lytic replication selects for clones with increased K13 expression and NF-kappaB activity, while siRNA-mediated silencing of K13 induces the expression of lytic genes. However, the suppressive effect of K13 on RTA-induced lytic genes is not uniform and it fails to block RTA-induced viral IL6 secretion and cooperates with RTA to enhance cellular IL-6 production, thereby dysregulating the lytic gene expression program. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Our results support a model in which ongoing KSHV lytic replication selects for clones with progressively higher levels of K13 expression and NF-kappaB activity, which in turn drive KSHV tumorigenesis by not only directly stimulating cellular survival and proliferation, but also indirectly by dysregulating the viral lytic gene program and allowing non-lytic production of growth-promoting viral and cellular genes. Lytic Replication-Induced Clonal Selection (LyRICS) may represent a general mechanism in viral oncogenesis.