Tumorigenic risk of human induced pluripotent stem cell explants cultured on mouse SNL76/7 feeder cells.

The potential for tumor formation from transplanted human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC) derivatives represents a high risk in their application to regenerative medicine. We examined the genetic origin and characteristics of tumors, that were formed when 13 hiPSC lines, established by ourselves, and 201B7 hiPSC from Kyoto University were transplanted into severe combined immune-deficient (SCID) mice. Though teratomas formed in 58% of mice, five angiosarcomas, one malignant solitary fibrous tumor and one undifferentiated pleomorphic sarcoma formed in the remaining mice. Three malignant cell lines were established from the tumors, which were derived from mitomycin C (MMC)-treated SNL76/7 (MMC-SNL) feeder cells, as tumor development from fusion cells between MMC-SNL and hiPSCs was negative by genetic analysis. While parent SNL76/7 cells produced malignant tumors, neither MMC-SNL nor MMC-treated mouse embryo fibroblast (MEF) produced malignant tumors. When MMC-SNL feeder cells were co-cultured with hiPSCs, growing cell lines were generated, that expressed genes similar to the parent SNL76/7 cells. Thus, hiPSCs grown on MMC-SNL feeder cells have a high risk of generating feeder-derived malignant tumors. The possible mechanism(s) of growth restoration and the formation of multiple tumor types are discussed with respect of the interactions between MMC-SNL and hiPSC.

Establishment of ultra long-lived cell lines by transfection of TERT into normal human fibroblast TIG-1 and their characterization.

To establish useful human normal cell lines, TERT (telomerase reverse transcriptase) cDNA was transfected into normal female lung fibroblast, TIG-1. After long-term-sub-cultivation of 74 individual clones selected for resistance to G418, we obtained 55 cultures with normal range of life span [75 PDL (population doubling level)], 16 cultures with extended life span (75-140 PDL). In addition, 3 immortal cell strains and unexpectedly, one ultra long-lived cell line (ULT-1) with life span of 166 PDL were established. IMT-1, one of the immortal cell strains was confirmed to maintain long telomere length, high telomerase activity and an extremely low level of p16INK4A. They also showed moderate p53 and p21CIP1 expression, keeping vigorous growth rate even at 450 PDL. High level of fibronectin and collagen 1α expression confirmed IMT-1 as normal fibroblasts, although one X chromosome had been lost. ULT-1, however, kept a near normal karyotypes and had shortening of telomere length, high expression of p16INK4A, moderate levels of senescence associated-ß-galactosidase positive cells and decreased growth rate only after 150 PDs (population doublings), and finally reached senescence at 166 PDL with morphology of normal senescent fibroblasts. As resources of standard normal human cell, abundant vials of early and middle passages of ULT-1 have been stocked. The use of the cell line is discussed, focusing on isograft of artificial skin and screening of anti-aging or safe chemical agents.

Direct observation of histone H2B-YFP fusion proteins and transport of their mRNA between conjugating Paramecia.

Cytoplasmic exchange between conjugating cells of Paramecium caudatum has been implicated by mating experiments using wild-type and behavioral mutant cells. To observe macromolecular transport between mating cells, we cloned and expressed the P. caudatum histone H2B gene as a fusion protein attached to an enhanced yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) named PcVenus. Significant fluorescent signals derived from histone H2B-PcVenus were detected throughout the macro- and micronuclei of transformant cells after microinjection of the expression vector. The normal growth and high mating reactivity of the transformants indicated that H2B-PcVenus functioned normally. Seven hours after a transformant cell expressing histone H2B-PcVenus was mated with an untransformed complementary mating-type cell, fluorescence derived from histone H2B-PcVenus was emitted from the macronuclei of the untransformed cell. About 48 h later, the fluorescent signal was detected not only in the macro- and micronuclei of untransformed cells but also in the macronuclear anlagen of both mating cells. This suggests that conjugant cells share parental histones during meiosis and subsequent DNA rearrangement. Single-cell RT-PCR analysis demonstrated the presence of H2B-PcVenus mRNA in untransformed cells 15 and 24 h after conjugation. We concluded that at least the mRNA of histone H2B-PcVenus was transferred from the transformed, to the untransformed cell during conjugation.

Reversible transformation and de-differentiation of human cells derived from induced pluripotent stem cell teratomas.

We first aimed to generate transformed cell lines from a human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-teratoma, and then examined the tumorigenic risks of the differentiated cells from hiPSC explant, because hiPSC-derivatives give rise to tumors in immune-deficient mice when transplanted. The colonies isolated from sparse cultures of hiPSC-teratoma cells expressed NANOG and OCT3/4 strongly, and telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) weakly. However, soft agar assay demonstrated that only one of them generated colonies in the gel, though hiPSCs, hTERT-transfected immortal cells, and its oncogene-transfected cells did not form any colonies. Furthermore, none of colonies isolated from the soft agar gel on primary culture (passage 0) of teratoma cells, expressed NANOG and OCT3/4 in the expanded cultures. The second soft agar assay on the colony-derived cells was unexpectedly negative. The cumulative growth curve, telomere shortening, and senescence-associated ß-galactosidase (SA ß-gal) staining confirmed the mortality of these cells, suggesting their reversible transformation. By using medium for embryonic stem cell (ESC medium) after MCDB 131 (MCDB) medium, the differentiated culture cells derived from hiPSC-teratoma converted into the cells expressing undifferentiated marker proteins, which lost afterwords even in ESC medium with feeder SNL76/7. The reversibility of transformation and de-differentiation suggest that tumorigenic risks of differentiated cells arise when they are exposed to suitable niches in vivo. Thus, removal of only the undifferentiated cells from iPSC-derivatives before transplantation does not solve the problem. Elucidation of mechanisms of reversibility and control of epigenetic changes is discussed as a safety bottleneck for hiPSC therapy.

Differentially expressed genes throughout the cellular immortalization processes are quite different between normal human fibroblasts and endothelial cells.

It is widely accepted that activation of telomerase and maintenance of telomeres play central roles in cellular immortalization for most cancer cells. However, they seem to be insufficient for normal human cells. To elucidate critically responsible genes for telomerase mediated cellular immortalization in non-cancerous cells, we explored the genes that are differentially expressed throughout the immortalization process of normal human cells using cDNA microarrays with novel normalization procedures. We found that the number of genes, differentially expressed during cellular immortalization after ectopic expression of telomerase, dramatically increased in a later phase, especially in fibroblasts. We identified 18 and 20 genes/ESTs dysregulated throughout the cellular immortalization processes in fibroblasts and endothelial cells, respectively, but none of them overlapped. Only BGN and COL5A2 were commonly downregulated, except for at early phase in fibroblasts, and a few genes showed controversial expression changes, with regard to previous reports in cancer cells. These findings indicate that normal somatic cells would require cell-type specific events in addition to telomerase activation, and a rare population that eventually experience such events would acquire immortality. The key molecules that distinguish the immortalization mechanisms in cancerous and non-cancerous cells may become crucial targets for anticancer therapy and regenerative therapy.

Peas-Mea1-Ppp2r5d overlapping gene complex: a transposon mediated-gene formation in mammals.

Human and mouse MEA1/Mea1 is flanked by two overlapping genes, a novel PEAS/Peas in a head-to-head orientation and PPP2R5D/Ppp2r5d in a tail-to-tail orientation making a Peas-Mea1-Ppp2r5d overlapping gene complex (PMP-complex). Genomic zoo blot analyses and database searching revealed that Mea1 exists only in mammals, while Peas and Ppp2r5d are conserved in eukaryotes. Mea1 and Peas are transcribed from a testis-expressed bidirectional promoter. Mea1-Ppp2r5d overlapping segment (MPOS) contains polyadenylation signals for both genes and shows marked conservation throughout mammals. Furthermore, the MPOS occupies 3'-region of transcripts of both genes is expected to form a clover-like intramolecular structure. Mouse genomic library Screening and database searches identified two MPOS-derived sequences in Odf2 gene and RP23-86H7 cosmid clone, respectively, in which MPOS might be a core segment for the retropositions. Thus, a key role of MPOS, a short transposable element containing polyadenylation signals on both strands, in the formation of the Mea1 during mammalian evolution is suggested.

Transformation of Paramecium caudatum with a novel expression vector harboring codon-optimized GFP gene.

We have developed a novel expression vector, pTub-tel3, for transformation in Paramecium caudatum. The vector was constructed by cloning P. caudatum alpha-tubulin 5' and 3' non-coding regions. To examine transformation with the pTub-tel3 construct, we chose the green fluorescent protein (GFP) as a selection marker. When a linearized pTub-tel3 vector containing a GFP open reading frame was injected into the macronucleus, the GFP transcript was expressed in many clones whereas protein expression was detected only after extensive optimization of original GFP codons. GFP-derived fluorescence was distributed throughout the nuclei and cytoplasm except for contractile and food vacuoles. Upon continuous cell division, notable heterogeneity of GFP fluorescence among descendants from the same transformant has emerged. This expression vector can be applied to the analysis of protein trafficking and localization in addition to exogenous gene expression in P. caudatum.

A novel testis-specific RAG2-like protein, Peas: its expression in pachytene spermatocyte cytoplasm and meiotic chromatin.

We report a novel gene Peas that constitutes an overlapping gene complex in mammalian genome. We have cloned human and mouse Peas cDNAs (hPEAS/mPeas) and analyzed their tissue and stage-specific expressions. Peas protein contains six repeated kelch motifs, structurally similar to RAG2, a V(D)J recombination activator, and is evolutionarily conserved among mammals, birds, insects, and nematodes. Northern, RNA in situ hybridization and immunohistochemical analyses showed that mPeas is specifically transcribed in testis, particularly in pachytene spermatocytes in which it is localized to the cytoplasm and meiotic chromatin. It is suggested that Peas may be involved in meiotic recombination process.

Extended longevity of Caenorhabditis elegans by knocking in extra copies of hsp70F, a homolog of mot-2 (mortalin)/mthsp70/Grp75.

The Caenorhabditis elegans homolog of mortalin/mthsp70/Grp75 (called mot-2 hereafter) was isolated by screening of a nematode cDNA library with mouse mot-2 cDNA. The isolated clone matched to hsp70F of C. elegans. Analysis with two of the antibodies raised against hsp70F revealed that unlike mammalian mot-2, it is heat inducible. Transient induction of hsp70F by heat shock led to a slight (<13%) extension in the C. elegans life span. The transgenic worms that constitutively over-expressed hsp70F predominantly in muscle showed life span extension (approximately 43% for mean and approximately 45% for maximum life span) as compared to the wild-type and green fluorescent protein-transgenic worms. Life span extension of human cells was obtained by over-expression of mot-2 [Kaul et al. (2000) FEBS Lett. 474, 159-164]. Our results show, for the first time, that this member of the hsp70 family governs the longevity of worms and thus there are common pathways that determine mammalian and worm longevity.

Differential gene expressions during immortalization of normal human fibroblasts and endothelial cells transfected with human telomerase reverse transcriptase gene.

It is widely accepted that telomerase, which compensates for telomere shortening, is finally activated in almost all kinds of human malignant neoplasms, and ectopic expression of telomerase may endow some kinds of human somatic cells with indefinite proliferation capacity, i.e., immortality. To clarify the intrinsic responses required in acquiring immortality, we investigated the chronological changes in the expression levels of the cell cycle and apoptosis-related genes by real-time RT-PCR in human normal fibroblasts and endothelial cells after hTERT transfection. We found that fibroblast MJ90 required intrinsic responses including reversible upregulation of cell-cycle promoting genes and down-regulation of apoptosis-inducing genes in early phase after transfection, whereas the endothelial cell HUE142-2 did not. In addition, the microarray analysis of the fibroblast strains revealed that the dysregulated genes during cellular immortalization were different from those reported in fibroblasts probably having acquired telomere maintenance mechanism concomitant with hTERT induction. These findings indicate that cell-type specific differential gene expression after telomerase activation may be important to acquire telomere-maintenance capacity and immortality in some non-cancerous human cells. Investigation of these molecules may elucidate the differences in the capacity of acquiring immortality in cancer and normal somatic cells in future.

In vitro establishment of tumorigenic human B-lymphoblastoid cell lines transformed by Epstein-Barr virus.

We studied tumorigenic and phenotypic characteristics of pre- and postimmortal human B-lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs) transformed by Epstein-Barr virus (EBV): preimmortal LCLs showed low telomerase activity and a normal diploid karyotype while postimmortal LCLs showed much higher telomerase activity and maintained a clonal aneuploidic state. Among five postimmortal LCLs tested, LCLs N0005 and N6803 formed colonies in agar medium and showed marked aneuploidy, and N6803 was transplantable into nude mice indicating that it had a complete malignant phenotype, but all preimmortal LCLs and the remaining three postimmortal LCLs lacked these characteristics. The products of tumor suppresser genes, p16(INK4A) and pRb, were downregulated in these two LCLs, and the p53 gene was mutated in N0005 LCL. We believe these results showed for the first time that some postimmortal EBV-transformed LCLs can become tumorigenic, contrary to previous reports, and that these LCLs provide an in vitro model of tumorigenesis induced by EBV.

Germ cell-specific nucleocytoplasmic shuttling protein, tesmin, responsive to heavy metal stress in mouse testes.

Tesmin 60, a novel testis-specific gene, has been identified to have homology in plant and animal species, sharing a pair of cysteine-rich regions reported to be similar to metallothionein. The functional implications for these homologs, however, are not fully understood. Two plant homologs are involved in regulating transcription or floral development. cDNA was transfected in COS-1 cells using GFP as a tag. The tesmin-GFP chimeric protein revealed its cytoplasmic localization, which is inconsistent with findings for the plant homologs. We hypothesized that the putative regulatory protein tesmin could be under the regulation of the nucleocytoplasmic shuttling by the effect of metal stress. Immunocytochemistry of male germ cells revealed that tesmin mainly locates in the cytoplasm at stages I-VIII of pachytene spermatocytes, while it temporarily translocates into the nucleus in the late pachytene or diplotene stages X-XII under normal conditions. This is one of a few examples of a germ cell-specific protein that undergoes temporal and spatial regulation through the G2/M transition in meiosis. This nucleocytoplasmic translocation of tesmin is also stress-responsive. Administration of cadmium causes loss of temporal regulation in spermatocytes. This observation suggests the testis is more sensitive to stresses than other organs. This is necessary to maintain genetic integrity.

LIN54 harboring a mutation in CHC domain is localized to the cytoplasm and inhibits cell cycle progression.

The mammalian LIN complex (LINC) plays important roles in regulation of cell cycle genes. LIN54 is an essential core subunit of the LINC and has a DNA binding region (CHC domain), which consists of two cysteine-rich (CXC) domains separated by a short spacer. We generated various LIN54 mutants, such as CHC deletion mutant, and investigated their subcellular localizations and effects on cell cycle. Wild-type LIN54 was predominantly localized in the nucleus. We identified two nuclear localization signals (NLSs), both of which were required for nuclear localization of LIN54. Interestingly, deletion of one CXC domain resulted in an increased cytoplasmic localization. The cytoplasmic LIN54 mutant accumulated in the nucleus after leptomycin B treatment, suggesting CRM1-mediated nuclear export of LIN54. Point mutations (C525Y and C611Y) in conserved cysteine residues of CXC domain that abolish DNA binding activity also increased cytoplasmic localization. These data suggest that DNA binding activity of LIN54 is required for its nuclear retention. We also found that LIN54 (C525Y) and LIN54 (C611Y) inhibited cell cycle progression and led to abnormal nuclear morphology. Other CXC mutants also induced similar abnormalities in cell cycle progression. LIN54 (C525Y) led to a decreased expression of some G2/M genes, whose expressions are regulated by LINC. This cell cycle inhibition was partially restored by overexpression of wild-type LIN54. These results suggest that abnormal cellular localization of LIN54 may have effects on LINC activity.

Establishment of human induced pluripotent stem cell lines from normal fibroblast TIG-1.

Normal human cells have a replicative life span and therefore senesce. Usually, normal human cell strains are differentiated cells and reach a terminally differentiated state after a number of cell divisions. At present, definitive differences are not known between replicative senescence and terminal differentiation. TIG-1 is a human fibroblast strain established from fetal lung and has been used extensively in studies of cellular senescence, and numerous data were accumulated at the molecular level. Recently, a method for generating induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) was developed. Using the method, we introduced four reprogramming genes to TIG-1 fibroblasts and succeeded in isolating colonies that had embryonic stem cell (ESC)-like morphologies. They showed alkaline phosphatase activity and expressed ESC markers, as shown by immunostaining of OCT4, SOX2, SSEA4, and TRA-1-81 as well as reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) for OCT4 and NANOG transcripts. Thus, we succeeded in establishing iPSC clones from TIG-1. The iPSC clones could differentiate to cells originated from all three germ-cell layers, as shown by RT-PCR, for messenger RNA (mRNA) expression of α-fetoprotein (endoderm), MSX1 (mesoderm) and microtubule-associated protein 2 (ectoderm), and by immunostaining for α-fetoprotein (endoderm), α-smooth muscle actin (mesoderm), and ß-III-tubulin (ectoderm). The iPSCs formed teratoma containing the structures developed from all three germ-cell layers in severe combined immune-deficiency mice. Thus, by comparing the aging process of parental TIG-1 cells and the differentiation process of iPSC-derived fibrocytes to fibroblasts, we can reveal the exact differences in processes between senescence and terminal differentiation.

Telomerase activation induces elongation of the telomeric single-stranded overhang, but does not prevent chromosome aberrations in human vascular endothelial cells.

Chromosome aberrations such as loss of chromosome 13 were frequently observed in human endothelial cells from umbilical cord veins (HUVEC). A recent study showed that the length of telomeric single-stranded 3'-overhangs (G-tails) is more important as an essential structure for chromosome maintenance than the net telomere length in telomere t-loop formation. Here, we have examined G-tail length using G-tail telomere HPA in normal and hTERT-transduced HUVECs. We found that forced expression of hTERT in HUVEC induced G-tail as well as total telomere length elongation. G-tail length was well correlated with total telomere length. However, hTERT introduction did not prevent chromosome aberrations such as loss of chromosome 13. Normal characteristics such as morphology, up-regulation of vWF, and tube formation were observed in hTERT-HUVEC as in young normal HUVEC. These results show that chromosome aberrations in HUVEC are independent of telomere G-tail and total telomere attrition.

Spsgt1, a new essential gene of Schizosaccharomyces pombe, is involved in carbohydrate metabolism.

hSGT1 (human suppressor of Gcr two) was isolated as a suppressor gene of the gcr2 mutation. Since Gcr2p is a key regulatory factor of glycolytic gene expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, hSGT1 is a candidate for a novel human transcription factor involved in carbohydrate metabolism. SGT1 appears to be conserved from Schizosaccharomyces pombe to human but not present in S. cerevisiae. To further study its function, we cloned the hSgt1p orthologue of Sz. pombe (Spsgt1) from Sz. pombe genomic DNA. Overall identity and similarity between SpSgt1p and hSgt1p are 24% and 37%, respectively. Disruption of Spsgt1 showed that Spsgt1 is essential for growth and, using a construct which conditionally expresses sgt1, which with low level expression growth was severely affected on glucose but normal on non-fermentable carbon sources. DNA microarray analyses showed that the transcription of many genes involved in carbohydrate metabolism and amino acid metabolism were upregulated in the mutant, suggesting that SpSgt1p may be involved in the regulation of carbohydrate metabolism. Furthermore, a GFP fusion of SpSgt1p was localized to the nucleus, fitting with the possibility of SpSgt1p as a transcription factor.

Anti-CD44 monoclonal antibody (IM7) induces murine systemic shock mediated by platelet activating factor.

The cell adhesion molecule CD44 plays an important role in progression of autoimmune diseases or cancer. Administration of anti-CD44 monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) have been reported to have anti-inflammatory or anti-cancer activity. However, our evidence shows that intravenous administration of the anti-CD44 IgG2b mAb IM7 induces systemic shock in mice. To examine the character of systemic shock, the cutaneous excess vascular permeability was evaluated. Administered mAb markedly increased vascular permeability but its F(ab')(2) fragments did not induce a reaction. The platelet-activating factor (PAF) specific antagonist Y-24180 was effective in preventing IM7-induced extravasation, whereas anti-histaminergic and anti-serotonergic agents were not. Y-24180 also ameliorated hematocrit elevation and hypotension in mice treated with IM7. These results indicate that IM7-induced systemic shock is mediated by PAF. Because IM7 also binds human CD44, anti-CD44 immunotherapy using IM7 may be applied to the clinical treatment of autoimmune diseases or cancer. This study describes potential triggering pathways for shock that must be avoided through modification of the immunotherapy.

Sequence analysis and expression of the mouse full-length vasoactive intestinal contractor/endothelin-2 gene (EDN2): comparison with the endothelin-1 gene (EDN1).

Vasoactive intestinal contractor (VIC)/endothelin-2 (ET2) is a vasoactive peptide hormone comprising 21 amino acids. The complete nucleotide sequence of the full-length gene encoding preproVIC (PPVIC) was determined. The PPVIC gene contains five exons that span 6 kb and shows a duplication on exons 2 and 3, coding for the VIC and VIC-like peptides respectively. Similarities between the genomic organization of the PPVIC/preproET2 and preproendothelin-1 genes suggest that the two are distantly related. PPVIC gene expression was observed in foetal and adult mouse intestine. The expression level in adults was approx. 10-fold higher than in the foetus, suggesting an involvement of VIC in intestinal development.

Male-enhanced antigen-1 gene flanked by two overlapping genes is expressed in late spermatogenesis.

The male-enhanced antigen-1 gene (Mea1) was originally isolated from a murine testicular cDNA library using anti-H-Y antigen antisera and was assigned to chromosome 17. On analysis of its structure and expression, we found that the Mea1 genomic sequence is flanked by two other genes: Ppp2r5d present in its 3'-terminus in a tail-to-tail orientation and a novel gene called Peas in its 5'-terminus in a head-to-head orientation. The coding sequences of the two genes embedded in the Mea1 sequence are located on the opposite DNA strands of Mea1. Cap-site analysis of Mea1 revealed that it is transcribed from at least seven sites. Most splice variants of Mea1 were abundantly expressed in the testis; the d-type was weakly expressed in the other tissues. AP-2-binding motifs were detected in the transcription-initiation sites. In situ hybridization and immunohistochemical studies revealed Mea1 expression in pachytene spermatocytes. This expression was most prominent in spermatids and residual bodies. The Mea1 protein was also localized in the cytoplasm of elongated spermatids and residual bodies. Localization of the Mea1 suggests that it may function in the very late stages of spermiogenesis. The possibility that Mea1 is one of the serologically detectable male antigens is discussed.

Native tesmin is a 60-kilodalton protein that undergoes dynamic changes in its localization during spermatogenesis in mice.

Tesmin is a testis-specific protein. Four mouse tesmin cDNAs so far reported encode a testis-specific, metallothionein-like, 30-kDa protein (tesmin-30). An antibody against tesmin-30, however, detected a protein of 60 kDa (tesmin-60) from the mouse testis. To resolve the relationship between the two, the immunoprecipitated native tesmin-60 was sequenced. The result indicated that tesmin-30 is not full-length but is part of the C-terminal half of tesmin-60. The full-length cDNA (2.2 kilobases [kb]) encoding tesmin-60 (475 amino acid residues) and its genomic DNA (23 kb) were cloned and sequenced. A search of databases indicated that tesmin is a member of the CXC-hinge-CXC family. Immunohistochemistry indicated that tesmin exhibits dynamic subcellular localization changes during spermatogenesis. Before meiosis, it was localized in the cytoplasm of early to late spermatocytes and then translocated into the nucleus just before meiotic division. After meiosis, it appeared in spermatids, starting from the acrosomal vesicles, moving to the nuclear membrane and then to the caudal end as the spermatids elongated, and finally relocating into the cytoplasm. Oxidative stress by cobalt chloride, as well as by diethylmaleate, induced both premature translocation of tesmin from the cytoplasm to the nucleus and apoptotic signals in spermatocytes. The persistent existence of tesmin and its temporally and spatially dynamic localization suggest that tesmin is involved in multiple stages of spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis, possibly during sperm maturation and/or morphogenesis.