Does farming experience matter? A comparison of farm health and safety attitudes, perceptions, and intentions of agricultural science students with and without farming experience.

INTRODUCTION: This study addresses two main questions: 'How does having the experience of farming influence college students' intrinsic motivations towards farm health and safety (FHS)?' and 'Are there any differences between the motivations reported by students with and without having such experience?'. This study seeks to investigate the role of farming experience in students' cognitive factors and intentions to evaluate whether sharing experiences and stories positively shape students' cognitive factors to perform FHS behaviours. METHODS: A cross-sectional online survey using a semi-structured questionnaire was assigned to a nationally representative sample of agricultural science students in Ireland (n= 430). Applying independent sample t-test and ANOVA test, multiple comparisons were made to examine if having the experience of farming affects FHS intrinsic motivations. RESULTS: This study illustrated students without farming experience are less likely to perceive farming as a dangerous occupation while they reported a slightly positive attitude and intention compared with their counterparts with experience of farming. Our study illustrated students with experience of farming gave a lower priority to FHS and control over safety behaviour (pessimistic approach) and they reported a slightly higher level of risk perception (optimistic perception). DISCUSSION: Having experience of farming (destructive experience - the experience of farming without having a near miss or injury or having heard of accidents, ie negative factors affecting students' motivations) may not be necessarily a positive factor as risk-taking is admitted as a norm and a part of the nature of the work. Conversely, having experience of FHS issues (constructive experience - any kind of farming experience that positively shapes students' motivations towards FHS) can positively shape attitude, perceptions, and intention. Therefore, we recommend that constructive experiences (positive affecting intrinsic motivations) should be incorporated into the FHS training of students through peer-to-peer sharing as this enhances attitudes, perceptions, and willingness of the majority of students.

Effects of Sorghum Malting on Colour, Major Classes of Phenolics and Individual Anthocyanins.

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) grain contains many health-promoting phytochemicals, including a broad range of phenolic compounds. Malting of cereal grains is known to increase the bioavailability of macro- and micronutrients. However, the detailed effects of malting on sorghum grain anthocyanins, a major class of phenolics that influence the taste and colour of sorghum-based foods, requires further investigation. Eight commercial sorghum hybrids harvested from three regions in eastern Australia were malted and analysed for colour, tannin content, total phenolic content (TPC), flavan-4-ols, total flavonoids, total anthocyanins and 3-deoxyanthocyanins. Grains of all the sorghums were found to be tannin-free. Malting decreased the TPC of all samples. For TPC, the grand means among all the sorghum cultivars for raw and malted grain were 2.77 and 2.48 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/g, respectively. For flavan-4-ols, the grand means for raw and malted sorghum grains were 2.98 and 2.23 abs/mL/g, respectively. Remarkably, total anthocyanin levels more than doubled upon malting whereas total flavonoid levels decreased by 12%. The average abundance of 3-deoxyanthocyanins in raw sorghum grains increased for about 8-fold upon malting. Our results will be valuable for sorghum breeders in the selection of lines for specific end uses and for food scientists developing sorghum-based products.

Telling Tales: Using Vignettes to Overcome Optimism Bias in Farm Health and Safety Attitudinal Studies.

OBJECTIVE: Measuring attitudes of farmers to safe farming practices using quantitative causal relationship approaches is central to improving understanding of (un)safe practices. This knowledge is important in the development of effective farm safety interventions. However, the accuracy of quantitative attitudinal studies in explaining farmers' decision-making faces a potential measurement challenge, i.e. a high level of optimism bias. In this paper, we present research that develops and tests farm safety attitudinal questions that are framed around "real-life" farming practices with the objective of reducing optimism bias. METHODS: We apply construal level theory (CLT) to support the design of vignettes that reflect common risk scenarios faced by farmers. Applying qualitative analysis of 274 fatal farm incidents that occurred in Ireland between 2004 and 2018 we identify the occupational behaviors (what farmers do), social (who are farmers), spatial (where farming takes place), and temporal (when farming happens) dimensions of risks resulting in most deaths. The results informed subsequent co-design activities with farm safety experts and farm advisors to develop "real-life" scenarios, attitudinal questions, and response options. The questionnaire was piloted and subsequently implemented to collect data from a sample of 381 farmers with either tractors or livestock. The results of the survey were compared to previous attitudinal research on farmer's attitudes to safety in Ireland to establish if there was as follows: i) increased variance in the responses, and ii) a statistically significant difference in the attitudes of respondents compared to the results reported in previous studies. RESULTS: The findings established that when farmers were provided with real-life scenarios, their responses were less optimistic and more varied, i.e. there was a greater range of responses, compared to previous studies. CONCLUSION: Applying CTL to the development of attitudinal survey instruments anchors attitudinal questions within farming specific occupational, social, spatial, and temporal contexts. The use of vignettes that draw on real-life scenarios offers the potential for improved design of surveys that seek to understand farmer/worker practices. The results suggest that this approach can improve the measurement of attitudes to farm safety.

Counting Farm Injuries and Fatalities: An Assessment of Irish Occupational Health and Safety Surveillance Data Systems.

OBJECTIVE: Generation of reliable data underpins the effectiveness of Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) surveillance systems. Despite the importance of understanding OHS data systems, there are few papers that provide overviews of their structure and/or content. This paper introduces a basic framework for assessing OHS data systems that will be of use to researchers internationally. We applied this approach to assess the Irish OHS data system by undertaking a data mapping exercise. METHOD: We developed a checklist based on recommendations of monitoring and measurement of OHS proposed by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (USA). An assessment of published reports that present systematic OHS surveillance data was undertaken to identify the institutions or organisations responsible for collecting and curating the data, their remit, and, associated with this, their respective case definitions. We then provide an overview of the variables collected and these are then mapped against the checklist. RESULTS: The assessment highlights that whilst the farm fatalities dataset provides complete coverage of all fatalities, regardless of age or employment status, the same is not true of the three non-fatal injuries datasets reviewed. There are important differences in the data collection methods and, associated with this, which populations are covered. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The assessment approach provides valuable insights into the strengths and weaknesses of a critical element of OHS surveillance systems, namely the production of datasets. This knowledge is important for researchers as understanding the data that informs their research is fundamental to good science. It is critical for policy-makers and other stakeholders to understand the strengths and weaknesses on which OHS policy, strategies, or education and training interventions are developed.

Data Driven Identification of Injury Risk Factors During Expansion on Irish Dairy Farms.

OBJECTIVES: This paper sought to determine risk factors of occupational injury in the Irish dairy farming sector and to estimate the roles of both dairying expansion and the discipline of agricultural extension in influencing reducing injury occurrence. METHODS: Data for this study was obtained via the Irish National Farm Survey (NFS). In total, 260 farm (83.6% of NFS dairy farm sample) workplace injury survey questionnaires were completed by NFS recorders by interviewing principal farm operators for year 2017. Injury survey data was analysed for 48 variables in conjunction with NFS core farm socio-economic, physical and financial data. Additionally, core data from 2010 for 78.5% of farms surveyed in 2017 was included in the study. Data were analysed using a three-step statistical testing process which met all Binary Logistic Regression assumptions. RESULTS: The study found that dairy farms had a higher farm workplace occupational injury level compared to a previous study. The study data indicates occurrence of elevated injury levels on farms which expanded and which were intensively managed from a milk production perspective. Farm expansion was associated with increased labor units used and increased investment per hectare. The study also found that use of extension services and farm discussion group participation were not associated with injury occurrence. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates how a retrospective farm workplace occupational injury survey of Irish dairy farms, analysed in combination with farm business data can be used to identify injury risk factors, including those associated with production expansion. Irish dairy farms have a heightened farm workplace occupation injury level while dairy production expansion increased injury levels. Extension engagement did not influence on injury levels. Approaches to improve farm safety on dairy farms are outlined.

Beyond Age and Cause: A Multidimensional Characterization of Fatal Farm Injuries in Ireland.

The study seeks to enhance understanding of the complex nature of fatal farm injuries and thereby support the development of targeted safety messages or interventions. The research analyses fatal farm injuries surveillance data collected by the Health and Safety Authority (Ireland) for the period 2004-2018. Utilizing Non-Linear Canonical Correlation Analysis (NLCCA) to identify similarities and differences between 274 fatal injuries, multiple interactions and correlations between two sets of variables were identified. The analysis identified two major patterns of injury. The first relates to older farmers (60+) who were killed due to being struck by an object in motion, i.e. a tractor or machine. These injuries occurred mainly during the summer or winter between 13:00 and 18:00 in the Southern-Eastern regions. The second pattern also relates to older farmers, however these fatalities are associated with beef production and the primary cause of injury was being kicked or crushed by livestock. These injuries commonly occur in the Border, Midland, and Western regions where fatalities are prevalent during spring and outside of normal working hours. Assessing interactions between variables demonstrates to whom, how, when, and where fatal injuries affect different groups within the farm population. These findings provide regulators and farm safety stakeholders with key insights into background characteristics of fatal injuries including type of enterprise, time of day, season, and regional location that should be used to develop safety awareness, training, and targeted interventions to at-risk populations.

Towards a Better Understanding of Farm Fatalities: Identification and Estimation of Farming Fatality Rates.

OBJECTIVE: Occupational fatality rates are useful in communicating key safety challenges associated with different industries or affecting different populations within those industries. Though seemingly intuitive, the calculation and use of fatality rates associated with farming needs to be carefully considered. This paper highlights difficulties and variability in Farm Fatality Rate (FFR) measures, proposes a series of rates appropriate for assessments of farm safety, and demonstrates their usage through an analysis of farm workplace deaths in Ireland between 2008 and 2016. METHODS: Six FFRs are calculated including: the Farm Household Rate (FHR); Farm Operator Rate (FOR); Family Worker Rate (FWR), Worker Rate (WR), Seasonal Fatality Rate (SFR) and, Enterprise Fatality Rate (EFR). To assess trends over time we calculate the rate using appropriate numerators and denominators in three sub-periods. RESULTS: FFRs vary considerably depending on which numerator and denominator are deployed. Over the period, the FHR, FOR, and FWR increased due to growth in the number of fatalities and a slight decrease in the denominator populations. The WR has declined substantially over the full period. The QFR increased substantially for Q2-Q4 whilst the EFR highlights workers on dairy or beef enterprises being particularly at risk. CONCLUSION: The characteristics of farm workforces present many challenges to the calculation of occupational fatality rates. We propose six alternatives that provide insights into the risks faced by farm households, farm operators, farm workers, seasonally and by type of farm enterprise. We recommend that, regardless of the rate used, the limitations associated with all fatality rates are clearly explained, particularly when engaging with media and occupational health and safety stakeholders.

Do social influences, awareness, or experience matter? Toward a better understanding of Farm-related Injury Risk Perception among agricultural science college students in Ireland.

Introduction: Formal farm safety education/training should be tailored, in terms of the approach, content and delivery, to students undertaking agriculture education and training to enhance Farm-related Injury Risk Perception (FIRP). To this end, this paper assesses factor(s) explaining or predicting levels of FIRP amongst students studying for a degree in agriculture science. Methods: A cross-sectional online survey was conducted with a nationally representative sample of Bachelor of Agriculture Science (BAgrSc) students (N = 417) (aged 18-20) in Ireland. Descriptive [frequency and cross-tabulations) and inferential (Ordinal Logistic Regression (OLR)] analyses were applied to evaluate the effects of social influences, experience (of farming, of a near-miss or injury), and awareness (of others who were injured or killed on the farm) on FIRP. Results: The study found that social influences negatively affected FIRP (P < 0.05). A relatively small number of students reported experiencing an injury (n = 56, 13.4%) that resulted in them being unable to participate in educational or social activities. A quarter of the respondents did, however, record experiencing a near-miss/close call (n = 106, 25.4%). A notable proportion (n = 144, 34.5%) of students had personal connections to someone who died as a consequence of a farm-related incident and 56.4% (n = 235) knew someone who was moderately or severely injured. OLR findings established that experiencing a severe injury, having a near-miss or close call, and awareness of a farm-related death or injury positively affects FIRP (P < 0.05). Conclusions: Perception of farm risks amongst students in Ireland is low. Students who recorded higher levels of risk perception were, however, more likely to report experiencing a near-miss, close call or severe injury, or knowing someone who experienced a farm-related injury or fatality. Farmers, family or friends were found to negatively impact the FIRP and this reflects previous research findings. Our findings highlight the need for education and training programs to enhance opportunities for student peer-to-peer learning through sharing of experiences and/or knowledge of farm injuries and/or fatalities. Such activities will enhance awareness and understanding amongst the general population of students leading to increased FIRP and contribute to a reduction in risk-taking.

Synergistic effect of fadrozole and insulin-like growth factor-I on female-to-male sex reversal and body weight of broiler chicks.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of Fadrozole hydrochloride and recombinant human insulin-like growth factor I (rhIGF-I) on female-to-male sex reversal, hatching traits, and body weight of broiler chickens. On the third day of incubation, fertile eggs were randomly assigned to five experimental groups comprising (i) Fadrozole (0.1 mg/egg), (ii) rhIGF-I (100 ng/egg), (iii) Fadrozole (0.1 mg/egg) + rhIGF-I (100 ng/egg), (iv) vehicle injection (10 mM acetic acid and 0.1% BSA), and (v) non-injected eggs. Eggs in the rhIGF-I-injected groups showed the mode of hatching time at the 480th hour of incubation, 12 hours earlier compared to the other groups, with no statistically significant difference in mortality and hatchability. On Day 1 and 42 of production, 90% of genetically female chicks were masculinized using Fadrozole treatment, while 100% female-to-male phenotypic sex reversal was observed in the Fadrozole+rhIGF-I group. Fadrozole equalized the body weight of both genders, although rhIGF-I was effective on the body weight of male chicks only. Interestingly, combined rhIGF-I and Fadrozole could increase the body weight in both sexes compared to the individual injections (P<0.05). These findings revealed that (i) IGF-I-treated chicken embryos were shown to be an effective option for overcoming the very long chicken deprivation period, (ii) the simultaneous treatment with Fadrozole and IGF-I could maximize the female-to-male sex reversal chance, (iii) the increase in the body weight of masculinized chickens via Fadrozole could be equal to their genetically male counterparts, and (iv) the IGF-I effectiveness, specifically along with the application of aromatase inhibitors in female chicks, indicates that estrogen synthesis could be a stumbling block for the IGF-I action mechanism in female embryos.