Blood Flow Restriction Therapy for 2 Weeks Prior to Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction Did Not Impact Quadriceps Strength Compared to Standard Therapy.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the efficacy of a 2-week home-based blood flow restriction (BFR) prehabiliation program on quadriceps strength and patient-reported outcomes prior to anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction. METHODS: Patients presenting with an ACL tear were randomized into two groups, BFR and control, at their initial clinic visit. Quadriceps strength was measured using a handheld dynamometer in order to calculate peak force, average force, and time to peak force during seated leg extension at the initial clinic visit and repeated on the day of surgery. All patients were provided education on standardized exercises to be performed 5 days per week for 2 weeks between the initial clinic visit and date of surgery. The BFR group was instructed to perform these exercises with a pneumatic cuff set to 80% of limb occlusion pressure placed over the proximal thigh. Patient-Reported Outcome Measurement System Physical Function (PROMIS-PF), knee range of motion, and quadriceps circumference were gathered at the initial clinic visit and day of surgery, and patients were monitored for adverse effects. RESULTS: A total 45 patients met inclusion criteria and elected to participate. There were 23 patients randomized to the BFR group and 22 patients randomized into the control group. No significant differences were noted between the BFR and control groups in any demographic characteristics (48% vs 64% male [P = .271] and average age 26.5 ± 12.0 vs 27.0 ± 11.0 [P = .879] in BFR and control, respectively). During the initial clinic visit, there were no significant differences in quadriceps circumference, peak quadriceps force generation, time to peak force, average force, pain, and PROMIS scales (P > .05 for all). Following completion of a 2-week home prehabilitation protocol, all patients indeterminant of cohort demonstrated decreased strength loss in the operative leg compared to the nonoperative leg (P < .05 for both) However, there were no significant differences in any strength or outcome measures between the BFR and control groups (P > .05 for all). There were no complications experienced in either group, and both were compliant with the home-based prehabilitation program. CONCLUSIONS: A 2-week standardized prehabilitation protocol preceding ACL reconstruction resulted in a significant improvement in personal quadriceps peak force measurements, both with and without the use of BFR. No difference in quadriceps circumference, strength, or patient reported outcomes were found between the BFR and the control group. The home-based BFR prehabiliation protocol was found to be feasible, accessible, and well tolerated by patients. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level II, randomized controlled trial with small effect size.

Multimodal Nonopioid Pain Protocol Provides Better or Equivalent Pain Control Compared to Opioid Analgesia Following Arthroscopic Rotator Cuff Surgery: A Prospective Randomized Controlled Trial.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the efficacy of a multimodal nonopioid analgesic protocol in controlling postoperative pain compared to opioids following a primary arthroscopic rotator cuff repair. METHODS: Seventy consecutive patients undergoing a primary rotator cuff repair were assessed for eligibility. An observer-blinded prospective randomized controlled trial was designed in accordance with the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials 2010 (CONSORT) statement. The two arms of the study included a multimodal nonopioid pain regimen for the experimental group, and a standard of care narcotics for the control group. The primary outcome was visual analog scale (VAS) pain scores for the first 10 postoperative days. Secondary outcomes included PROMIS-PI (Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System-Pain Interference) scale, patient satisfaction, and adverse drug events. RESULTS: Thirty patients declined to participate or were excluded, and 40 patients were included in the final analysis. A total of 23 patients were in the traditional group, and 17 patients were in the nonopioid group. Control patients on opioid pain management reported a significantly higher VAS pain score on postoperative day 1 (opioid: 5.7 ± 2, nonopioid: 3.7 ± 2.2; P = .011) and postoperative day 4 (opioid: 4.4 ± 2.7, nonopioid: 2.4 ± 2.2; P = .023). No significant difference was seen on any other postoperative day. When mixed measured models were used to control for confounding factors, the nonopioid group demonstrated significantly lower VAS and PROMIS-PI scores (P < .01) at every time point. Patients in the traditional analgesia group reported significantly more days with constipation (P = .003) and days with upset stomach (P = .020) than those in the nonopioid group. CONCUSSION: The present study found that a multimodal nonopioid pain protocol provided equivalent or better pain control compared to traditional opioid analgesics in patients undergoing primary arthroscopic rotator cuff repair. Minimal side effects were noted with some improvement in the multimodal nonopioid pain cohort. All patients reported satisfaction with their pain management. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level I, prospective randomized controlled trial.

Preoperative Opioid Use Is Associated With Inferior Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System Scores Following Rotator Cuff Repair.

PURPOSE: To determine the influence of preoperative opioid use on Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) scores pre- and postoperatively in patients undergoing arthroscopic rotator cuff repair (RCR). METHODS: A retrospective review of all RCR patients aged >18 years old was performed. PROMIS pain interference ("PROMIS PI"), upper extremity function ("PROMIS UE"), and depression ("PROMIS D") scores, were reviewed. These measures were collected at preoperative, 6-month, and 1-year postoperative time points. A prescription drug-monitoring program was queried to track opioid prescriptions. Patients were categorized as chronic users, acute users, and nonusers based on prescriptions filled. Comparison of means were carried out using analysis of variance and least squares means. Effect sizes and 95% confidence intervals were calculated. RESULTS: In total, 184 patients who underwent RCR were included. Preoperatively, nonusers (n = 92) had superior PROMIS UE (30.6 vs 28.9 vs 26.1; P < .05) and PI scores (61.5 vs 64.9 vs 65.3; P < .001) compared with acute users (n = 65) and chronic users (n = 27), respectively. At 6 months postoperatively; nonusers demonstrated significantly greater PROMIS UE (41.7 vs 35.6 vs. 33.5; P < .001), lower PROMIS D (41.6 vs 45.8 vs 51.1; P < .001), and lower PROMIS PI scores (50.7 vs 56.3 vs 58.1; P < .01) when compared with acute and chronic users, respectively. Nonusers had lower PROMIS PI (47.9 vs 54.3 vs 57.4; P < .0001) and PROMIS D (41.6 vs 48.3 vs 49.2; P = .0002) scores compared with acute and chronic users at 1-year postoperatively. Nonusers experienced a significantly greater magnitude of improvement in PROMIS D 6 months postoperatively compared with chronic opioid users (-5.9 vs 0.0; P < .01). CONCLUSIONS: Patients undergoing RCR demonstrated superior PROMIS scores pre- and postoperatively if they did not use opioids within 3 months before surgery. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: III, retrospective comparative trial.

Trends in Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System Scores Exist Between Day of Surgical Scheduling and Day of Surgery.

PURPOSE: To examine trends in Patient-Reported Outcome Measurement Information System (PROMIS) scores among orthopedic sports medicine patients undergoing surgery who completed PROMIS forms both in the ambulatory (preoperative) setting at the time of surgical scheduling, as well as on the day of surgery (perioperative) prior to their procedure. METHODS: Consecutive patients undergoing various sports medicine-related surgeries were recruited. Patients were included if they were scheduled for surgery and completed preoperative PROMIS on the day of surgical scheduling and on the day of surgery. Patients were excluded if they refused the questionnaire or had been administered perioperative anesthesia, which would interfere with questionnaire completion. Paired samples t-tests were run between preoperative and perioperative PROMIS scores to determine statistical significance. RESULTS: 153 patients were included with an average age of 46.5 years. The average (SD) time between completion of PROMIS questionnaires was 46.5 (44.4) days. The absolute value change in scores between preoperative and perioperative visits was 4.09 for PROMIS UE, 3.59 for PROMIS PF, 3.67 for PROMIS PI, and 4.13 for PROMIS D. The overall net change of scores between preoperative and perioperative visits were -.57 for PROMIS UE CAT, .16 points for PROMIS PF CAT, -.85 points for PROMIS PI CAT, and -2.14 points for PROMIS D CAT. Statistically significant differences in preoperative and perioperative PROMIS PI (P =.042) and PROMIS D (P =.004) scores were found. CONCLUSIONS: Health states-as measured by PROMIS CAT forms completed among patients undergoing orthopedic surgery-can either improve or worsen preoperatively between the time of administration in both the ambulatory and perioperative setting. Despite the existence of these preoperative trends, it is important to consider patient and surgery-specific causes, such as the anatomic region, type of surgical intervention, and timing of preoperative PROMIS administration. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: III, prognostic.

Multimodal Nonopioid Pain Protocol Provides Equivalent Pain Versus Opioid Control Following Meniscus Surgery: A Prospective Randomized Controlled Trial.

PURPOSE: To assess the effectiveness of a nonopioid pain regimen in controlling postoperative pain as compared with a traditional opioid pain control following primary meniscectomy or meniscal repair. METHODS: Ninety-nine patients undergoing primary meniscectomy or meniscal repair were assessed for participation. A prospective randomized control trial was performed in accordance with the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials 2010 statement. The 2 arms of the study included a multimodal nonopioid analgesic protocol and a standard opioid regimen with a primary outcome of postoperative pain level (visual analog scale) for the first 10 days postoperatively. Secondary outcomes included patient-reported outcomes, complications, and patient satisfaction. Randomization was achieved using a random-number generator. Patients were not blinded. Data collection was done by a blinded observer. RESULTS: Eleven patients did not meet the inclusion criteria, and 27 declined participation. A total of 61 patients were analyzed with 30 randomized to the opioid regimen and 31 randomized to the nonopioid regimen. Patients receiving the nonopioid regimen demonstrated noninferior visual analog scale scores compared with patients who received opioid pain medication (P > .05). No significant differences were found in preoperative (opioid: 58.9 ± 7.0; nonopioid: 58.2 ± 5.5, P = .724) or postoperative (opioid: 59.8 ± 6.5; nonopioid: 54.9 ± 7.1, P = .064) Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement and Information System Pain Interference Short Form scores. No difference was found in recorded side effects between both groups at any given time point: constipation, nausea, diarrhea, upset stomach, and drowsiness (P > .05). CONCLUSIONS: This study found that a multimodal nonopioid pain protocol provided equivalent pain control and patient outcomes following primary meniscus surgery while having an equivalent side effect profile. All patients reported satisfaction with their pain management without requiring emergency opioid analgesia. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level I, prospective randomized controlled trial.

Preoperative Patient-Centric Predictors of Postoperative Outcomes in Patients Undergoing Arthroscopic Meniscectomy.

PURPOSE: To determine the minimal clinically important difference (MCID) using Patient-Reported Outcome Measurement Information System (PROMIS) computer-adaptive testing assessments in patients undergoing arthroscopic partial meniscectomy. The secondary purpose was to identify which preoperative patient factors are associated with MCID achievement. METHODS: Three PROMIS computer-adaptive testing assessments (Physical Function [PF], Pain Interference [PI], and Depression [D]) were administered to all patients presenting to 1 of 2 board-certified, sports medicine orthopaedic surgeons. Patients with Current Procedural Terminology codes of 29880 or 29881 were chart reviewed for a host clinical and demographic factors. PROMIS scores were assessed for improvement and patient characteristics were assessed for influence on any improvement. MCID was calculated according to the distribution methodology and receiver operating characteristics were used to assess preoperative scores predictive ability. RESULTS: In total, 166 patients met inclusion criteria (58 exclusions). Postoperative PROMIS-PF (45.6), PROMIS-PI (54.6), and PROMIS-D (44.1) significantly improved at least 3 months after surgery when compared with baseline (P = .002). MCID values for PROMIS-PF, PROMIS-PI, and PROMIS-D were 3.5, 3.3, and 4.4, respectively. Individuals with PROMIS-PF scores below 34.9 yielded an 82% probability of achieving MCID, while PROMIS-PI scores above 67.5 yielded an 86% probability of achieving MCID and a cutoff of 58.9 for PROMIS-D yielded a 60% probability of achieving MCID, with 90% specificity. CONCLUSIONS: PROMIS scores, obtained preoperatively, were shown to be valid predictors of postoperative clinical improvement in patients undergoing meniscectomy. Our findings suggest that patients with physical function scores of 34.9 or less have an increased probability of reaching a minimal clinically important difference. Similarly, patients with pain interference scores of 67.5 and above have increased probability of reaching MCID for pain interference. These cutoffs may be used by physicians to aid in the counseling of patients considering arthroscopic meniscectomy. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: IV, Case Series.

Elbow Torque Is Reduced in Asymptomatic College Pitchers With Elbow Laxity: A Dynamic Ultrasound Study.

PURPOSE: To determine the relation between medial elbow torque, as measured by wearable sensor technology, and adaptations of the medial elbow structures on dynamic ultrasound imaging in asymptomatic collegiate pitchers. METHODS: Thirty-four pitchers from National Collegiate Athletic Association Division II universities were eligible for preseason testing. The exclusion criteria included age younger than 18 years, history of surgery, non-pitcher, or current restrictions. Pitchers were fitted with a wearable sensor sleeve that recorded elbow torque, arm slot, arm speed, and arm rotation. Pitchers threw 5 fastballs in a standardized manner off the mound at game-speed effort. They also underwent dynamic ultrasound imaging of the elbow by a musculoskeletal sonographer, with standardized valgus loading. Images were deidentified, and measurements of the ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) and ulnohumeral joint space (UHJS), to assess elbow laxity, were performed by a musculoskeletal radiologist. RESULTS: The final analysis included 28 pitchers with an average age of 20.1 years (standard deviation, 1.3 years; range, 18-23 years) and playing experience of 15.3 years (standard deviation, 1.8 years; range, 11-19 years). The dominant UCL thickness (P < .001), loaded UHJS (P = .039), and delta UHJS (P < .001) were significantly greater than the nondominant measurements. An inverse correlation was found between loaded UHJS and medial elbow torque (r = -0.4, P < .001). Additionally, every 1-mm increase in UHJS significantly reduced medial elbow torque by 2.27 Nm (P = .032) and arm slot by 8.8° (P = .019) and increased arm rotation by 5.3° (P = .043). Pitchers with a loaded UHJS of 4.4 mm or greater and delta UHJS of 1.25 mm or greater had significantly reduced medial elbow torque (P < .001). Pitchers with a UCL thickness of 1.65 mm or greater had significantly increased medial elbow torque (47.4 Nm vs 44.8 Nm, P = .006). CONCLUSIONS: Pitchers with increased dynamic elbow laxity were found to experience reduced medial elbow torque while pitching. Additionally, pitchers with greater UCL thickness on ultrasound were found to experience increased medial elbow torque while pitching. This study's findings suggest a relation between anatomic adaptations found on ultrasound of the pitching elbow and medial elbow torque. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level II, prospective cohort study.

Patients With Preoperative Clinical Depression Symptomology Experience Significant Improvements in Postoperative Pain, Function, and Depressive Symptoms Following Rotator Cuff Repair.

PURPOSE: To determine the impact of clinical depression on outcomes after rotator cuff repair (RCR), as measured by Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) Computer Adaptive Test (CAT) health domains. METHODS: RCR patients were given PROMIS CAT assessments for physical function (PROMIS UE), pain interference (PROMIS PI), and depression (PROMIS D) during preoperative and postoperative clinic visits. PROMIS D scores ≥55 correlate with mild clinical depression; thus patients with PROMIS D scores ≥ 55 were placed in the clinical depression (CD) group, whereas patients with scores <55 were placed in the "no clinical depression" (NCD) group. Categorical variables were compared at preoperative and postoperative (6 months and ≥1 year) timepoints using χ2 tests. Continuous variables were compared using Student's t-tests. RESULTS: Of the 340 RCR patients included in this study, 65 (19.1%) were found to have mild clinical depression preoperatively, with that number being reduced to 23 (6.8%) at 6 months and 19 (5.6%) at ≥1 year after surgery. Compared with preoperative PROMIS scores, CD patients had significant postoperative improvements at 6 months and ≥1 year in mean PROMIS UE (26.7 vs 35.5 vs 38.9; P < .001) and PROMIS PI (67.6 vs 56.7 vs 56.4; P < .001). NCD patients had similar postoperative improvements at 6 months and ≥1 year in mean PROMIS UE (30.8 vs 38.6 vs 46.9; P < .001) and PROMIS PI (61.7 vs 53.0 vs 47.6; P < .001). The improvement in PROMIS scores was similar for the CD and NCD groups in both PROMIS UE (12.2 vs 16.1, respectively) and PROMIS PI (-11.2 vs -14.1, respectively). CONCLUSION: Despite starting with worse PROMIS UE and PROMIS PI scores, patients undergoing RCR with symptoms of CD experienced significant improvement in function, pain, and depressive symptoms. Preoperative depression should not be a contraindication to arthroscopic RCR in patients who are otherwise appropriate operative candidates. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III, retrospective comparative trial.

Multimodal nonopioid pain protocol provides equivalent pain control versus opioids following arthroscopic shoulder labral surgery: a prospective randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to compare postoperative pain and patient satisfaction in patients undergoing primary arthroscopic labral surgery managed with either a nonopioid alternative pain regimen or a traditional opioid pain regimen. METHODS: Sixty consecutive patients undergoing primary arthroscopic shoulder labral surgery were assessed for participation. In accordance with the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) 2010 statement, a prospective randomized controlled trial was performed. The 2 arms of the study were a multimodal nonopioid analgesic protocol as the experimental group and a standard opioid regimen as the control group. The primary outcome was postoperative pain scores (on a visual analog scale [VAS]) for the first 10 days postoperatively. Secondary outcomes included patient satisfaction, patient-reported outcomes, and complications. Randomization was performed with a random number generator, and all data were collected by blinded observers. Patients were not blinded. RESULTS: Twelve patients did not meet the inclusion criteria or declined to participate. Thus, 48 patients were included in the final analysis: 24 in the nonopioid group and 24 in the opioid group. There was no significant difference in VAS or PROMIS (Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System) scores between patients in the 2 cohorts on any postoperative day (P > .05). When we controlled for confounding factors with repeated-measures mixed models, the nonopioid cohort reported significantly lower VAS and PROMIS (Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System) Pain Interference scores (P < .01) at all time points. No difference was found in reported adverse events (constipation, diarrhea, drowsiness, nausea, and upset stomach) between cohorts at any time point (P > .05). CONCLUSION: This study found that a multimodal nonopioid pain regimen provided, at the minimum, equivalent pain control, an equivalent adverse reaction profile, and equivalent patient satisfaction when compared with a standard opioid-based regimen following arthroscopic shoulder labral surgery.

The relationship between shoulder range of motion and elbow stress in college pitchers.

HYPOTHESIS: College pitchers with increased external rotation gain (ERG) produce increased medial elbow torque (elbow stress) whereas those with reduced total rotational range of motion (ROM) have reduced medial elbow torque during pitching. METHODS: Pitchers were recruited from 3 college baseball teams. Players with prior injury or on pitching restrictions because of pain were excluded. Players were evaluated within 2 weeks before their first game of the season. Pitchers completed an intake survey, and shoulder and arm measurements were taken. Pitchers were fitted with a baseball sleeve that included a sensor at the medial elbow. The sensor calculated elbow torque, arm speed, arm slot, and shoulder rotation for each pitch, while a radar gun measured peak ball velocity. After adequate warm-up, pitchers threw 5 fastballs in a standardized manner off the mound at game-speed effort. The primary outcome evaluated the relationship between shoulder ROM and medial elbow torque. Additional outcomes evaluated pitcher characteristics and demographic characteristics in the context of shoulder ROM. RESULTS: Twenty-eight pitchers were included in the preseason analysis. The average age and playing experience were 20.1 years (standard deviation [SD], 1.3 years) and 15.3 years (SD, 1.8 years), respectively, with 2.5 years (SD, 1.2 years) playing at collegiate level. The dominant shoulder showed decreased internal rotation and increased external rotation (ER) relative to the nondominant side (P < .001). The average glenohumeral internal rotation deficit and ERG were 11.3° (SD, 9.87°) and 5.71° (SD, 8.8°), respectively. ERG ≥ 5° was a significant predictor of elbow stress during pitching (47.4 Nm [SD, 0.7 Nm] vs. 45.1 Nm [SD, 0.6 Nm], P = .014). Univariate associations showed that each additional degree of ER resulted in increased elbow torque (ß estimate, 0.35 ± 0.06 Nm; P = .003). Conversely, decreased medial elbow torque was found in pitchers with reduced shoulder ROM (glenohumeral internal rotation deficit ≥ 20°: 43.5 Nm [SD, 1.1 Nm] vs. 46.6 Nm [SD, 0.5 Nm], P = .011; loss of total rotational ROM ≥ 5°: 43.6 Nm [SD, 1.1 Nm] vs. 46.6 Nm [SD, 0.5 Nm], P = .013) and in those with greater arm length (P < .05). CONCLUSIONS: College pitchers with increased ER produce greater medial elbow torque during the pitching movement. Each degree of increased ER was found to correlate with increased elbow torque and ball velocity. On the contrary, arm length and reduced shoulder ROM were associated with reduced medial elbow torque. This study suggests that increased ER in pitchers is associated with greater elbow stress during pitching.

A Multimodal Protocol to Diminish Pain Following Common Orthopedic Sports Procedures: Can We Eliminate Postoperative Opioids?

PURPOSE: To determine whether postsurgical pain, measured by the visual analog scale (VAS), following common orthopaedic sports procedures could be managed effectively with a nonopioid multimodal analgesic protocol. METHODS: This prospective study evaluated a custom multimodal nonopioid pain protocol in patients undergoing common orthopaedic sports procedures by a single fellowship-trained orthopaedic sports surgeon from May 2018 to December 2018. Procedures included anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction, rotator cuff repair, arthroscopic partial meniscectomy, and labrum repair. The nonopioid pain protocol consisted of preoperative analgesics, intraoperative local infiltration analgesia, and a postoperative pain regimen. Patient pain was immediately reported after surgery and 1 week postoperatively using the VAS, whereas rescue opioids (oxycodone 5 mg) used were recorded using a prescription opioid journal. Statistical analysis of patient VAS scores, demographic correlations, and comparison between opioid rescue users versus nonusers was performed. RESULTS: A total of 141 patients were included. One week following surgery, patients reported a mean VAS level of 3.2 ± 2.3 and required on average 2.6 ± 3.6 breakthrough oxycodone pills (8.6 ± 12.0 morphine equivalents). Forty-five percent of patients did not require any breakthrough prescription opioids and reported satisfaction with pain management. Patients who required opioids were more likely to have a history of anxiety/depression (44.2% vs 23.8%, P = .012) and reported greater pain scores as compared with nonusers (3.94 ± 2.5 vs 2.41 ± 1.75, P = .016). The most common side effect of the pain protocol was feeling drowsy (23.5%). All patients were satisfied with their pain management postoperatively. CONCLUSIONS: A multimodal, nonopioid pain protocol was found to be effective in managing postoperative pain following common orthopedic sports procedures. Patients were found to have low levels of pain, require minimal rescue opioids, and had no severe side effects related to the protocol. These results suggest a nonopioid alternative to pain management following common orthopedic sports procedures. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV, prospective case series.

Risk Factors for Postoperative Opioid Use in Arthroscopic Shoulder Labral Surgery.

PURPOSE: To determine the correlation between preoperative and postoperative opioid use in patients undergoing arthroscopic shoulder labral repair, as well as patient risk factors associated with increased postoperative opioid use after the procedure. METHODS: A retrospective review of all patients undergoing arthroscopic shoulder labral surgery at a single institution between August 2013 and November 2017 was performed. Patients were stratified as opioid nonusers, acute users, or chronic users based on preoperative consumption. Patient demographic characteristics, injury characteristics, surgical interventions, and postoperative opioid use for the first 12 months after surgery were then analyzed. RESULTS: A total of 340 patients were included in this study. The average age was 26.3 years (range, 13-68 years), and the average body mass index was 27.5 (range, 18.4-45.0). Preoperative opioid users (acute and chronic) were found to continue to receive opioid medications at extended time points beyond 2 months postoperatively compared with nonusers (P < .001). Patients with intraoperatively identified SLAP tears experienced more preoperative pain and required more postoperative opioid prescriptions (P = .018). On stratification for other common shoulder instability injury patterns, no differences were found between the number of postoperative opioid prescriptions filled and the presence of Bankart lesion, Hill-Sachs lesion, reverse Hill-Sachs lesion, anterior labroligamentous periosteal sleeve avulsion, glenolabral articular disruption, or humeral avulsion of the glenohumeral ligament (P > .05). CONCLUSIONS: In patients undergoing arthroscopic labral surgery, the chronicity of preoperative opioid use, number of concomitant procedures at the time of initial surgery, and presence of biceps tenodesis were found to significantly increase postoperative opioid demand. Orthopaedic surgeons should recognize risk factors for increased opioid use postoperatively and adapt treatment strategies and patient counseling accordingly. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III, retrospective cohort study.

Fatigue Increases Dynamic Knee Valgus in Youth Athletes: Results From a Field-Based Drop-Jump Test.

PURPOSE: To determine whether fatigue increases dynamic knee valgus in adolescent athletes, as measured after a standardized exercise protocol and video-based drop-jump test. A secondary aim was to determine whether individual risk factors place certain athletes at increased risk for dynamic knee valgus. METHODS: Athletes aged 14 to 18 years were recruited for this video analysis study. Athletes were recorded performing a standard drop-jump to assess dynamic valgus. Participants then completed a standardized exercise protocol. Fatigue was quantified using a maximum vertical jump, which was compared with pre-exercise values. The drop-jump was repeated postexercise. All drop-jump recordings were randomized and scored for dynamic valgus by 11 blinded reviewers. Univariate analysis was performed to identify characteristics that predisposed athletes to increased dynamic valgus. RESULTS: Eighty-five (47 female, 38 male) athletes with an average age of 15.4 years were included in this study. Forty-nine percent of athletes demonstrated an increase in dynamic valgus determined by drop-jump assessment after exercise. A significantly greater percentage of athletes were graded "medium or high risk" in jumps recorded after the exercise protocol (68%) as compared with before the exercise protocol (44%; P < .01). Female athletes (P < .01) and those older than 15 years of age (P < .01) were the most affected by fatigue. CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, our study found that exercise increases dynamic knee valgus in youth athletes. Female athletes and those older than 15 years of age were most significantly affected by exercise. Greater fatigue levels were found to correlate with an increase in dynamic knee valgus, which may place athletes at greater anterior cruciate ligament injury risk. The field-based exercise drop-jump test is a low-cost and reproducible screening tool to identify at-risk athletes who could possibly benefit from anterior cruciate ligament injury-prevention strategies. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: III, Comparative trial.

Cost analysis of Tommy John surgery for Major League Baseball teams.

BACKGROUND: The economic loss following ulnar collateral ligament reconstruction (UCLR) in Major League Baseball (MLB) pitchers has not been evaluated. The purpose of this study is to quantify the financial impact of UCLR on MLB teams. We hypothesize that MLB teams incur significant losses annually as a result of salaries paid to injured players following reconstruction. METHODS: Public records were accessed to identify MLB pitchers from January 1, 2004, to December 31, 2014, who had undergone UCLR. Contract terms and time away from competition were used to approximate economic loss. Successful return was considered when a pitcher returned to play in at least 1 Minor League Baseball (MiLB) or MLB game. RESULTS: One hundred ninety-four MLB pitchers underwent UCLR from 2004 to 2014, missing on average 180.2 days of the MLB regular season. Cost of recovery (COR) amounted to $395 million, averaging $1.9 million per player. Starting pitchers accounted for the largest total COR at $239.6 million, whereas closers had the largest economic loss per player ($3.9 million/player). Only 77% of pitchers returned to MLB play. CONCLUSION: UCLR has a substantial economic impact on MLB teams. Starting pitchers represented a majority of team cost, but closers represented higher costs per pitcher.

Predictors of elbow torque among professional baseball pitchers.

BACKGROUND: Overuse injuries of the shoulder and elbow continue to be prevalent in elite baseball pitchers. Pitch velocity has been shown to impact medial elbow torque in adolescent baseball pitchers. However, the determinants of medial elbow torque in professional baseball pitchers are not known. PURPOSE: To determine the influence of pitch type, velocity, and player characteristics on medial elbow torque in professional baseball pitchers. METHODS: Professional baseball pitchers were recruited for participation. Height, weight, body mass index (BMI), and throwing arm measurements were obtained for all study participants. While wearing a gyroscopic sensor equipped with an accelerometer, participants were instructed to throw a standard, randomized sequence of fastballs, changeups, and curveballs. Elbow torque, arm slot, arm speed, shoulder rotation, and ball velocity were recorded for each pitch. A linear mixed model was used to evaluate the association of pitch type with each pitch parameter, adjusting for pitchers' demographics. RESULTS: A total of 12 professional baseball pitchers were included in this study. Among the pitch types, medial elbow torque was significantly higher in fastballs than in curveballs (P = .001). An increased BMI value was independently associated with decreased elbow torque in pitchers (P = .035). CONCLUSION: Fastballs place significantly higher torque on the medial elbow than do curveballs, which is consistent with previous studies done on high school and collegiate populations. Pitchers with a higher BMI experience significantly less torque across the medial elbow.

Mental Health and Tobacco Use Are Correlated With Physical Function Outcomes in Patients With Knee Pain and Injury.

PURPOSE: To examine the relation between the Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) domains of Pain Interference (PROMIS-PI), Depression (PROMIS-D), and Physical Function (PROMIS-PF) for nonoperative patients presenting to our ambulatory sports orthopaedic clinic with knee complaints and to determine whether patient demographic characteristics influence PROMIS scores, particularly tobacco use. METHODS: All patients treated nonoperatively for a primary complaint of knee pain were recruited for participation. Patients were included if they completed all 3 PROMIS questionnaires prior to their clinical evaluation. Patients were excluded if their treatment plan determined that surgical intervention was warranted. Survey results were compiled, and statistical correlations were run between PROMIS domains and patient demographic characteristics. RESULTS: A total of 527 PROMIS questionnaire sets were included. PROMIS-PF had a strong negative correlation with PROMIS-PI (R = -0.75, P < .001) and a nearly moderate negative correlation with PROMIS-D (R = -0.47, P < .001). When evaluating patient demographic characteristics, we found a significant decrease in physical function scores and increases in pain and depression scores in both current and former tobacco users compared with nonsmokers. Differences in all PROMIS domains between smokers and nonsmokers exceeded minimal clinically important differences. CONCLUSIONS: Our study showed an inverse correlation between PROMIS-PI and PROMIS-PF, as well as between PROMIS-D and PROMIS-PI, in patients seen in the ambulatory setting for knee complaints treated nonoperatively. A positive correlation was found between PROMIS-PI and PROMIS-D. Tobacco use was a patient demographic factor found to significantly impact PROMIS scores leading to minimal clinically important differences across all 3 PROMIS domains. The findings of this study may be used to identify patients at high risk of poor outcomes. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III, observational study.

Risk Factors for Postoperative Opioid Use in Arthroscopic Meniscal Surgery.

PURPOSE: (1) To evaluate the influence of preoperative opioid use on postoperative consumption after arthroscopic meniscal surgery and (2) to determine preoperative patient factors associated with increased opioid use after meniscal surgery. METHODS: We performed a retrospective review of all patients with a primary diagnosis of a meniscal tear at a single institution between August 2013 and February 2017. Patients were classified as opioid nonusers if they had not received any opioid medications in the 3 months before meniscal surgery, as acute users if they received at least 1 opioid prescription within 1 month preceding meniscal surgery, or as chronic users if they received at least 1 opioid prescription within 3 months preceding meniscal surgery. Clinical records were reviewed for postoperative opioid use within a year after surgery. We also recorded patient demographic characteristics and the degree of knee osteoarthritis at the time of surgery using the Outerbridge classification. RESULTS: A total of 735 patients were included. The average age was 46.7 years (range, 12-79 years), and the average body mass index was 30.2 ± 6.2 (range, 13.3-55.4). Patients who were acute or chronic opioid users preoperatively were more likely to continue to use opioids beyond 1 month postoperatively (P < .001). A higher percentage of patients with advanced osteoarthritis (Outerbridge grade 3 or 4) were found to continue to use opioids at all time points beyond the first postoperative month (P < .05). Pair-wise comparisons showed that the number of total opioid prescriptions filled was significantly higher in the group with Outerbridge grade 1 or 2 and the group with Outerbridge grade 3 or 4 than the group with Outerbridge grade 0 (P = .023 and P = .014, respectively). No significant difference in postoperative opioid use was noted when we compared meniscal repair versus resection, primary procedure versus revision, different tear types, or concomitant procedures. CONCLUSIONS: In patients undergoing arthroscopic meniscal surgery, the chronicity of preoperative opioid intake and degree of knee osteoarthritis were found to have a significant effect on postoperative opioid use. LEVEL OF STUDY: Level III, retrospective comparative study.

Length of Time Between Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction and Return to Sport Does Not Predict Need for Revision Surgery in National Football League Players.

PURPOSE: To determine whether the length of time between primary anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) and return to sport (RTS) predicted the need for revision ACLR in National Football League (NFL) athletes. METHODS: All NFL players who underwent ACLR from 2009 to 2015 were identified. The date of index ACLR and date of return to NFL regular-season game play after surgery were recorded. The length of time between ACLR and RTS was compared between players who required revision ACLR and those who did not. Correlation coefficients were used to assess whether players who RTS sooner sustained recurrent anterior cruciate ligament injury at an earlier date. RESULTS: A total of 130 NFL players (average age, 25.3 ± 3.2 years) who underwent ACLR and returned to sport were identified. The average time to RTS after ACLR was 49.7 weeks after surgery. Of the players, 23 (18%) required revision ACLR. There was no significant difference in the length of time between ACLR and RTS in players who did not require revision ACLR (50.2 ± 10.1 weeks) and those who did (48.3 ± 11.0 weeks, P = .40). Time to RTS was not found to correlate with time to reinjury in athletes requiring revision ACLR (R = 0.21; 95% confidence interval, -0.18 to 0.54). A large proportion of players (56%) sustained a reinjury within the first 10 weeks of returning to NFL game play. CONCLUSIONS: Our study found that timing of RTS after ACLR was not a significant risk factor for revision surgery in NFL athletes. Time to RTS was also not shown to correlate with time to reinjury. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III, case-control study.

Abnormal tibial alignment is a risk factor for lateral meniscus posterior root tears in patients with anterior cruciate ligament ruptures.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to identify if abnormal tibial alignment was a risk factor for lateral meniscus posterior root tears (LMPRT) in patients with acute anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) ruptures. METHODS: The medical charts of 200 patients treated for ACL ruptures between 2013 and 2016 were retrospectively reviewed and evaluated. MRI images and reports were assessed for concurrent meniscal tears. Radiographs were reviewed for tibia vara and tibial slope angles and MRI reports identifying lateral root tears were compared to intraoperative reports to determine accuracy. Multiple logistic regression models were constructed to identify potential risk factors for LMPRTs. RESULTS: Of the 200 patients reviewed, a total of 97 individuals with concurrent meniscal injuries were identified. In patients sustaining a concurrent meniscal injury, there was a 4% incidence of medial meniscus posterior root tears and a 10.3% incidence of LMPRTs. Patients sustaining an ACL injury with an LMPRT were found to have greater tibia vara angles (4.2 ± 1.0 vs. 2.9 ± 1.7; p = 0.024), increased tibial slopes (12.6 ± 1.5 vs. 10.7 ± 2.9; p = 0.034), and higher BMIs (27.3 ± 2.9 vs. 25.3 ± 5.9; p = 0.034) when compared to patients without meniscus tears. There was low agreement between MRI and arthroscopic findings (kappa rate = 0.54). Multiple logistic regression analysis demonstrated that a tibia vara angle > 3 was associated with a 5.2-fold increase (95% CI 0.99-27.01; p = 0.050), and a tibial slope > 12 with a 5.4-fold increase (95% CI 1.03-28.19; p = 0.046) in LMPRTs. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with greater tibia varus angles, increased tibial slopes, and higher BMIs were found to have an increased risk of LMPRTs when sustaining an ACL rupture. There was a low rate of agreement between MRI and arthroscopy in identifying LMPRTs. In patients with ACL ruptures who have abnormal tibial alignment or increased BMI, physicians should be watchful for lateral meniscus posterior root tears. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 3.

Impact of ball weight on medial elbow torque in youth baseball pitchers.

HYPOTHESIS: Our hypothesis was that an increase in ball weight would result in an increase in medial elbow torque during the pitching motion. METHODS: Youth pitchers were recruited for this study and instructed to throw 5 maximum-effort fastballs from ground level using baseballs of 4 different weights: 85 g (3 oz), 113 g (4 oz), 142 g (5 oz), and 170 g (6 oz). The validated Motus sensor was used to assess medial elbow torque, arm speed, arm slot, and shoulder rotation for each pitch. Pitch velocity was measured using a radar gun. Relationships between baseball weight and pitching kinetics and/or kinematics were evaluated using linear mixed-effects analysis. An exit survey was conducted detailing the pitcher's evaluation of the ball weights used. RESULTS: A total of 19 youth baseball pitchers (average age, 11.8 ± 1.1 years; age range, 9-14 years) completed the study. For every 1-oz (28-g) increase in ball weight, ball velocity decreased 2.0 ± 0.1 mph (χ2 = 52.68, P < .001), medial elbow torque increased 0.92 ± 0.37 newton meters (χ2 = 5.36, P = .02), and arm speed decreased 8.52 ± 3.68 rpm (χ2 = 5.03, P = .02). Shoulder rotation and arm slot were not significantly impacted by ball weight (P > .05). Survey results indicated that the 85-g (3-oz) baseball was most favored (8 of 19 pitchers) and believed to result in the highest pitch velocity (15 of 19 pitchers). The 170-g (6-oz) baseball was least favored (17 of 19 pitchers) and believed to result in the slowest pitch velocity (18 of 19 pitchers). No adverse outcomes were reported with the use of any ball weight or the mobile sensor. CONCLUSION: Among youth pitchers, an increase in ball weight correlated with greater medial elbow torque, decreased pitch velocity, and decreased arm speed.