Potential to take root in viticulture? An evaluation of mycorrhizal inoculants on the growth and nutrient uptake of young wine grapes planted in live field soil.

AIMS: Incorporating biofertilizers, such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal (AM) fungal inoculants, into vineyard management practices may enhance vine growth and reduce environmental impact. Here, we evaluate the effects of commercially available and local AM fungal inoculants on the growth, root colonization, and nutrient uptake of wine grapes (Vitis vinifera) when planted in a field soil substrate. METHODS AND RESULTS: In a greenhouse experiment, young wine grapes were planted in a field soil substrate and inoculated with one of three commercially available mycorrhizal inoculant products, or one of two locally collected whole soil inoculants. After 4 months of growth, inoculated vines showed no differences in plant biomass, colonization of roots by AM fungi, or foliar macronutrient concentrations compared to uninoculated field soil substrate. However, vines grown with local inoculants had greater shoot biomass than vines grown with mycorrhizal inoculant products. CONCLUSIONS: Although effects from inoculations with AM fungi varied by inoculant type and source, inoculations may not improve young vine performance in field soils with a resident microbial community.

Fungicide Use Patterns in Select United States Wine Grape Production Regions.

Wine grape production (Vitis sp.) in the United States requires fungicide inputs for disease control. Currently, there is limited data available on vineyard fungicide use patterns. This information is important in developing tailored recommendations for disease management and fungicide stewardship. In this paper, we summarize the wine grape vineyard fungicide use patterns from four major regions: Napa and Sonoma valleys (California), Willamette Valley (Oregon), Columbia Valley (Washington), and several smaller regions east of the Mississippi River in years 2009 to 2020. We learned that the average in-season total fungicide applications ranged regionally from 5.6 to 8. The most commonly applied Fungicide Resistance Action Committee (FRAC) codes in spray programs were FRAC 3, 13, and M02 across all regions, with some variation to the top four groups in each region. Most applications were made on 14-day intervals; however, shorter intervals (7-day) were favored early season, and longer intervals (21-day) were favored late season. Tank-mixing multiple active ingredients was common east of the Mississippi River during all stages of grape development; this action was typically favored during the bloom period in other regions. In a subset of records that participated in FRAC 11 fungicide resistance testing, the average number of FRAC 11 applications after testing was reduced to either no applications or one application in Napa and Sonoma valleys. This survey provides regionally specific data related to fungicide stewardship practices that could be a focus for future stewardship messaging and fungicide resistance selection training, including total product use (selection events), spray intervals (selection pressure), and tank mixing (selection management).[Formula: see text] Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.

Development of a PNA-LNA-LAMP Assay to Detect an SNP Associated with QoI Resistance in Erysiphe necator.

The repetitive use of quinone outside inhibitor fungicides (QoIs, strobilurins; Fungicide Resistance Action Committee [FRAC] 11) to manage grape powdery mildew has led to development of resistance in Erysiphe necator. While several point mutations in the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene are associated with resistance to QoI fungicides, the substitution of glycine to alanine at codon 143 (G143A) has been the only mutation observed in QoI-resistant field populations. Allele-specific detection methods such as digital droplet PCR and TaqMan probe-based assays can be used to detect the G143A mutation. In this study, a peptide nucleic acid-locked nucleic acid mediated loop-mediated isothermal amplification (PNA-LNA-LAMP) assay consisting of an A-143 reaction and a G-143 reaction, was designed for rapidly detecting QoI resistance in E. necator. The A-143 reaction amplifies the mutant A-143 allele faster than the wild-type G-143 allele, while the G-143 reaction amplifies the G-143 allele faster than the A-143 allele. Identification of resistant or sensitive E. necator samples was determined by which reaction had the shorter time to amplification. Sixteen single-spore QoI-resistant and -sensitive E. necator isolates were tested using both assays. Assay specificity in distinguishing the single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) approached 100% when tested using purified DNA of QoI-sensitive and -resistant E. necator isolates. This diagnostic tool was sensitive to one-conidium equivalent of extracted DNA with an R2 value of 0.82 and 0.87 for the G-143 and A-143 reactions, respectively. This diagnostic approach was also evaluated against a TaqMan probe-based assay using 92 E. necator samples collected from vineyards. The PNA-LNA-LAMP assay detected QoI resistance in ≤30 min and showed 100% agreement with the TaqMan probe-based assay (≤1.5 h) for the QoI-sensitive and -resistant isolates. There was 73.3% agreement with the TaqMan probe-based assay when samples had mixed populations with both G-143 and A-143 alleles present. Validation of the PNA-LNA-LAMP assay was conducted in three different laboratories with different equipment. The results showed 94.4% accuracy in one laboratory and 100% accuracy in two other laboratories. The PNA-LNA-LAMP diagnostic tool was faster and required less expensive equipment relative to the previously developed TaqMan probe-based assay, making it accessible to a broader range of diagnostic laboratories for detection of QoI resistance in E. necator. This research demonstrates the utility of the PNA-LANA-LAMP for discriminating SNPs from field samples and its utility for point-of-care monitoring of plant pathogen genotypes.

A Rapid Glove-Based Inoculum Sampling Technique to Monitor Erysiphe necator in Commercial Vineyards.

Information on the presence and severity of grape powdery mildew (GPM), caused by Erysiphe necator, has long been used to guide management decisions. While recent advances in the available molecular diagnostic assays and particle samplers have made monitoring easier, there is still a need for more efficient field collection of E. necator. The use of vineyard worker gloves worn during canopy manipulation as a sampler (glove swab) of E. necator was compared with samples identified by visual assessment with subsequent molecular confirmation (leaf swabs) and airborne spore samples collected by rotating-arm impaction traps (impaction traps). Samples from United States commercial vineyards in Oregon, Washington, and California were analyzed using two TaqMan qPCR assays targeting the internal transcribed spacer regions or cytochrome b gene of E. necator. Based on qPCR assays, visual disease assessments misidentified GPM up to 59% of the time with a higher frequency of misidentification occurring earlier in the growing season. Comparison of the aggregated leaf swab results for a row (n = 915) to the row's corresponding glove swab had 60% agreement. The latent class analysis (LCA) indicated that glove swabs were more sensitive than leaf swabs in detecting E. necator presence. The impaction trap results had 77% agreement to glove swabs (n = 206) taken from the same blocks. The LCAs estimated that the glove swabs and impaction trap samplers varied each year in which was more sensitive for detection. This likely indicates that these methods have similar levels of uncertainty and provide equivalent information. Additionally, all samplers, once E. necator was detected, were similarly sensitive and specific for detection of the A-143 resistance allele. Together, these results suggest that glove swabs are an effective sampling method for monitoring the presence of E. necator and, subsequently, the G143A amino acid substitution associated with resistance to quinone outside inhibitor fungicides in vineyards. Glove swabs could reduce sampling costs due to the lack of need for specialized equipment and time required for swab collection and processing.

Identification of Putative SDHI Target Site Mutations in the SDHB, SDHC, and SDHD Subunits of the Grape Powdery Mildew Pathogen Erysiphe necator.

Succinate dehydrogenase inhibitors (SDHIs) are fungicides used in control of numerous fungal plant pathogens, including Erysiphe necator, the causal agent of grapevine powdery mildew (GPM). Here, the sdhb, sdhc, and sdhd genes of E. necator were screened for mutations that may be associated with SDHI resistance. GPM samples were collected from 2017 to 2020 from the U.S. states of California, Oregon, Washington, and Michigan, and the Canadian province of British Columbia. Forty-five polymorphisms were identified in the three sdh genes, 17 of which caused missense mutations. Of these, the SDHC-p.I244V substitution was shown in this study to reduce sensitivity of E. necator to boscalid and fluopyram, whereas the SDHC-p.G25R substitution did not affect SDHI sensitivity. Of the other 15 missense mutations, the SDHC-p.H242R substitution was shown in previous studies to reduce sensitivity of E. necator toward boscalid, whereas the equivalents of the SDHB-p.H242L, SDHC-p.A83V, and SDHD-p.I71F substitutions were shown to reduce sensitivity to SDHIs in other fungi. Generally, only a single amino acid substitution was present in the SDHB, SDHC, or SDHD subunit of E. necator isolates, but missense mutations putatively associated with SDHI resistance were widely distributed in the sampled areas and increased in frequency over time. Finally, isolates that had decreased sensitivity to boscalid or fluopyram were identified but with no or only the SDHC-p.G25R amino acid substitution present in SDHB, SDHC, and SDHD subunits. This suggests that target site mutations probably are not the only mechanism conferring resistance to SDHIs in E. necator.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis-Induced Bronchoalveolar Lavage Gene Expression Signature in Latent Tuberculosis Infection Is Dominated by Pleiotropic Effects of CD4+ T Cell-Dependent IFN-γ Production despite the Presence of Polyfunctional T Cells within the Airways.

Tuberculosis (TB) remains a worldwide public health threat. Development of a more effective vaccination strategy to prevent pulmonary TB, the most common and contagious form of the disease, is a research priority for international TB control. A key to reaching this goal is improved understanding of the mechanisms of local immunity to Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative organism of TB. In this study, we evaluated global M. tuberculosis-induced gene expression in airway immune cells obtained by bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) of individuals with latent TB infection (LTBI) and M. tuberculosis-naive controls. In prior studies, we demonstrated that BAL cells from LTBI individuals display substantial enrichment for M. tuberculosis-responsive CD4+ T cells compared with matched peripheral blood samples. We therefore specifically assessed the impact of the depletion of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells on M. tuberculosis-induced BAL cell gene expression in LTBI. Our studies identified 12 canonical pathways and a 47-gene signature that was both sensitive and specific for the contribution of CD4+ T cells to local recall responses to M. tuberculosis In contrast, depletion of CD8+ cells did not identify any genes that fit our strict criteria for inclusion in this signature. Although BAL CD4+ T cells in LTBI displayed polyfunctionality, the observed gene signature predominantly reflected the impact of IFN-γ production on a wide range of host immune responses. These findings provide a standard for comparison of the efficacy of standard bacillus Calmette-Guérin vaccination as well as novel TB vaccines now in development at impacting the initial response to re-exposure to M. tuberculosis in the human lung.

Developmental Dynamics of Meloidogyne hapla in Washington Wine Grapes.

Meloidogyne hapla is the most prevalent plant-parasitic nematode in Washington state wine grape vineyards. Understanding the developmental dynamics of M. hapla can improve the timing of diagnostic sampling and nematicide application. Three Vitis vinifera vineyards in Washington were sampled March 2015 to March 2017 to determine the developmental dynamics of M. hapla by measuring second-stage juveniles (J2) in soil, eggs and adult females in roots, and fine root tips. A model of M. hapla J2 development based on soil growing degree days using a base temperature (Tb) of 0°C (GDDsoil) and a start date of 1 March was developed. This model was validated at two additional vineyards in Washington and was robust with R2 values > 0.74. M. hapla has one generation per year and overwinters primarily as the J2 infective stage. Juvenile populations declined after 1 March, reaching their lowest density in early July and reaching a maximum density over the winter. M. hapla egg and root tip densities reached a maximum in early August. The number of females per root tip did not vary throughout the year. A single generation with defined peaks in J2 population densities will allow for specific timing of nematicide interventions.

Hyperammonemia results in reduced muscle function independent of muscle mass.

The mechanism of the nearly universal decreased muscle strength in cirrhosis is not known. We evaluated whether hyperammonemia in cirrhosis causes contractile dysfunction independent of reduced skeletal muscle mass. Maximum grip strength and muscle fatigue response were determined in cirrhotic patients and controls. Blood and muscle ammonia concentrations and grip strength normalized to lean body mass were measured in the portacaval anastomosis (PCA) and sham-operated pair-fed control rats (n = 5 each). Ex vivo contractile studies in the soleus muscle from a separate group of Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 7) were performed. Skeletal muscle force of contraction, rate of force development, and rate of relaxation were measured. Muscles were also subjected to a series of pulse trains at a range of stimulation frequencies from 20 to 110 Hz. Cirrhotic patients had lower maximum grip strength and greater muscle fatigue than control subjects. PCA rats had a 52.7 ± 13% lower normalized grip strength compared with control rats, and grip strength correlated with the blood and muscle ammonia concentrations (r(2) = 0.82). In ex vivo muscle preparations following a single pulse, the maximal force, rate of force development, and rate of relaxation were 12.1 ± 3.5 g vs. 6.2 ± 2.1 g; 398.2 ± 100.4 g/s vs. 163.8 ± 97.4 g/s; -101.2 ± 22.2 g/s vs. -33.6 ± 22.3 g/s in ammonia-treated compared with control muscle preparation, respectively (P < 0.001 for all comparisons). Tetanic force, rate of force development, and rate of relaxation were depressed across a range of stimulation from 20 to 110 Hz. These data provide the first direct evidence that hyperammonemia impairs skeletal muscle strength and increased muscle fatigue and identifies a potential therapeutic target in cirrhotic patients.

Weather During Critical Epidemiological Periods and Subsequent Severity of Powdery Mildew on Grape Berries.

Recorded severity of grape powdery mildew on berries of untreated, susceptible hybrid cultivars varied from 0.2 to 50.5% across a 30-year period in Geneva, NY; within 7 of those years, cluster disease severity ranged from 3.42 to 99.5% on Vitis vinifera 'Chardonnay'. Although existing temperature-driven risk models could not account for this annual variation, pan evaporation (Epan), an environmental variable influenced by the collective effects of temperature, vapor pressure deficit, solar radiation, and wind speed, did. Logistic regression analysis (LRA) was used to classify epidemics as either mild or severe. Recursive partition analysis (RPA) provided a simplified decision tree for calculation of powdery mildew risk and incorporated (i) an estimate of the relative primary inoculum levels based on temperatures in the previous late summer and (ii) the current season favorability for pathogen development during the grapevine phenological period critical for berry infection by Erysiphe necator. Although the LRA had fewer instances of misclassification, RPA provided a rapid means for seasonal risk classification. Both the RPA and LRA models are able to describe disease severity risk in real time or can be used to forecast risk, thereby allowing growers to adjust management programs in a responsive manner.

Alterations in lung gene expression in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.

BACKGROUND: Diabetes profoundly affects gene expression in organs such as heart, skeletal muscle, kidney and liver, with areas of perturbation including carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, oxidative stress, and protein ubiquitination. Type 1 diabetes impairs lung function, but whether gene expression alterations in the lung parallel those of other tissue types is largely unexplored. METHODS: Lung from a rat model of diabetes mellitus induced by streptozotocin was subjected to gene expression microarray analysis. RESULTS: Glucose levels were 67 and 260 mg/dl (p < 0.001) in control and diabetic rats, respectively. There were 46 genes with at least ± 1.5-fold significantly altered expression (19 increases, 27 decreases). Gene ontology groups with significant over-representation among genes with altered expression included apoptosis, response to stress (p = 0.03), regulation of protein kinase activity (p = 0.04), ion transporter activity (p = 0.01) and collagen (p = 0.01). All genes assigned to the apoptosis and response to stress groups had increased expression whereas all genes assigned to the collagen group had decreased expression. In contrast, the protein kinase activity and ion transporter activity groups had genes with both increased and decreased expression. CONCLUSIONS: Gene expression in the lung is affected by type 1 diabetes in several specific areas, including apoptosis. However, the lung is resistant to changes in gene expression related to lipid and carbohydrate metabolism and oxidative stress that occur in other tissue types such as heart, skeletal muscle and kidney.

Gene expression of sternohyoid and diaphragm muscles in type 2 diabetic rats.

BACKGROUND: Type 2 diabetes differs from type 1 diabetes in its pathogenesis. Type 1 diabetic diaphragm has altered gene expression which includes lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, ubiquitination and oxidoreductase activity. The objectives of the present study were to assess respiratory muscle gene expression changes in type 2 diabetes and to determine whether they are greater for the diaphragm than an upper airway muscle. METHODS: Diaphragm and sternohyoid muscle from Zucker diabetic fatty (ZDF) rats were analyzed with Affymetrix gene expression arrays. RESULTS: The two muscles had 97 and 102 genes, respectively, with at least ± 1.5-fold significantly changed expression with diabetes, and these were assigned to gene ontology groups based on over-representation analysis. Several significantly changed groups were common to both muscles, including lipid metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism, muscle contraction, ion transport and collagen, although the number of genes and the specific genes involved differed considerably for the two muscles. In both muscles there was a shift in metabolism gene expression from carbohydrate metabolism toward lipid metabolism, but the shift was greater and involved more genes in diabetic diaphragm than diabetic sternohyoid muscle. Groups present in only diaphragm were blood circulation and oxidoreductase activity. Groups present in only sternohyoid were immune & inflammation and response to stress & wounding, with complement genes being a prominent component. CONCLUSION: Type 2 diabetes-induced gene expression changes in respiratory muscles has both similarities and differences relative to previous data on type 1 diabetes gene expression. Furthermore, the diabetic alterations in gene expression differ between diaphragm and sternohyoid.

Distinct gene expression signatures comparing latent tuberculosis infection with different routes of Bacillus Calmette-Guérin vaccination.

Tuberculosis remains an international health threat partly because of limited protection from pulmonary tuberculosis provided by standard intradermal vaccination with Bacillus of Calmette and Guérin (BCG); this may reflect the inability of intradermal vaccination to optimally induce pulmonary immunity. In contrast, respiratory Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection usually results in the immune-mediated bacillary containment of latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI). Here we present RNA-Seq-based assessments of systemic and pulmonary immune cells from LTBI participants and recipients of intradermal and oral BCG. LTBI individuals uniquely display ongoing immune activation and robust CD4 T cell recall responses in blood and lung. Intradermal BCG is associated with robust systemic immunity but only limited pulmonary immunity. Conversely, oral BCG induces limited systemic immunity but distinct pulmonary responses including enhanced inflammasome activation potentially associated with mucosal-associated invariant T cells. Further, IL-9 is identified as a component of systemic immunity in LTBI and intradermal BCG, and pulmonary immunity following oral BCG.

Soil and Climate Geographic Information System Data-Derived Risk Mapping for Grape Phylloxera in Washington State.

Grape phylloxera (Daktulosphaira vitifoliae, syn. Viteus vitifoliae), a destructive root and foliar pest of grapevines, occurs in almost all viticulture regions worldwide. However, certain regions have remained "phylloxera free." Until recently, this included Washington state (United States), where this insect is regulated as a quarantine pest by Washington State Department of Agriculture. In 2019, established phylloxera populations were discovered in Washington. Phylloxera is typically managed by using resistant or tolerant rootstocks. In Washington, most wine grapes are grown on their own roots of the susceptible species Vitis vinifera instead of grafted rootstock, and thus, are at high risk of vine death should they become infested with phylloxera. This article reports development of a phylloxera risk map for Washington state using geographical soil texture (sand content) and soil temperature data. Weighted averages of soil texture data (mapping year: 2016, depth: 0-100 cm) were obtained from United States Department of Agriculture-Natural Resource Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS) and soilgrids. Soil temperature data were obtained from over 200 weather stations of Washington State University's AgWeatherNet network. Threshold-based classifications were performed in Quantum GIS software on the rasterized soil sand content and temperature independently to derive low, moderate, and high-risk areas, with risk defined as site suitability for optimal phylloxera development. The validation identified 22 out of 23 confirmed phylloxera-positive sites as "high risk," and one site as "moderate risk" when considering soil sand content alone. Soil temperature data alone classified 10 sites as "high risk" and 13 sites as "low risk." When soil sand content was combined with soil temperature (as a risk modifier), 10 sites were classified as "high risk," 12 sites as "high-moderate risk" and one site as "moderate-low" risk. Ground-truth comparisons of confirmed positive sites for phylloxera agreed with past research suggesting that soil sand content is the dominant factor influencing phylloxera infestation. Pertinent risk assessment can be an important component for vineyard decision-making, including whether to use rootstocks in vineyard development or replant scenarios. It may also help to focus the initial scouting and identification efforts to sites and may be helpful when tracking and developing solutions for quarantine pests, such as phylloxera.

Fungal species associated with grapevine trunk diseases in Washington wine grapes and California table grapes, with novelties in the genera Cadophora, Cytospora, and Sporocadus.

Grapevine trunk diseases cause serious economic losses to grape growers worldwide. The identification of the causal fungi is critical to implementing appropriate management strategies. Through a culture-based approach, we identified the fungal species composition associated with symptomatic grapevines from wine grapes in southeastern Washington and table grapes in the southern San Joaquin Valley of California, two regions with contrasting winter climates. Species were confirmed through molecular identification, sequencing two to six gene regions per isolate. Multilocus phylogenetic analyses were used to identify novel species. We identified 36 species from 112 isolates, with a combination of species that are new to science, are known causal fungi of grapevine trunk diseases, or are known causal fungi of diseases of other woody plants. The novel species Cadophora columbiana, Cytospora macropycnidia, Cytospora yakimana, and Sporocadus incarnatus are formally described and introduced, six species are newly reported from North America, and grape is reported as a new host for three species. Six species were shared between the two regions: Cytospora viticola, Diatrype stigma, Diplodia seriata, Kalmusia variispora, Phaeoacremonium minimum, and Phaeomoniella chlamydospora. Dominating the fungal community in Washington wine grape vineyards were species in the fungal families Diatrypaceae, Cytosporaceae and Sporocadaceae, whereas in California table grape vineyards, the dominant species were in the families Diatrypaceae, Togniniaceae, Phaeomoniellaceae and Hymenochaetaceae. Pathogenicity tests demonstrated that 10 isolates caused wood discoloration similar to symptomatic wood from which they were originally isolated. Growth rates at temperatures from 5 to 35°C of 10 isolates per region, suggest that adaptation to local climate might explain their distribution.

Differential susceptibility of muscles to myotonia and force impairment in a mouse model of myotonic dystrophy.

INTRODUCTION: Myotonic dystrophy, or dystrophia myotonica (DM), is characterized by prominent muscle wasting and weakness as well as delayed muscle relaxation resulting from persistent electrical discharges. METHODS: We hypothesized heterogeneity among muscles in degree of weakness and myotonia in an expanded [(CUG)(250)] repeats transgenic (HSA(LR)) mouse DM model. Muscle contraction was compared among diaphragm, extensor digitorum longus (EDL), and soleus muscles. RESULTS: Myotonia was found only in EDL, as manifested by longer late-relaxation time and elevated myotonic index. EDL, but not the other two muscles, had impaired force over a wide range of stimulation frequencies. During fatigue-inducing stimulation, DM EDL muscle force per cross-sectional area was significantly impaired during 25-Hz stimulation, whereas there were no differences in fatigue response for DM diaphragm or soleus. CONCLUSION: In an expanded repeats model of DM the EDL is more susceptible to myotonia and force impairment than muscles with lower proportions of fast-twitch fibers.

Fatigue-inducing stimulation resolves myotonia in a drug-induced model.

BACKGROUND: Slowed muscle relaxation is the contractile hallmark of myotonia congenita, a disease caused by genetic CLC-1 chloride channel deficiency, which improves with antecedent brief contractions ("warm-up phenomenon"). It is unclear to what extent the myotonia continues to dissipate during continued repetitive contractions and how this relates temporally to muscle fatigue. Diaphragm, EDL, and soleus muscles were examined in vitro during repetitive 20 Hz and 50 Hz train stimulation in a drug-induced (9-AC) rat myotonia model. RESULTS: At the onset of stimulation, 9-AC treated diaphragm and EDL muscle had markedly prolonged half relaxation and late relaxation times (range 147 to 884 ms, 894 to 1324 ms). Half relaxation and late relaxation times reached near-normal values over the 5-10 and 10-40 subsequent contractions, respectively. In both muscles myotonia declined faster during repetitive 50 Hz than 20 Hz stimulation, and much faster than the rate of force loss during fatigue at both frequencies. Soleus muscle was resistant to the myotonic effects of 9-AC. CONCLUSIONS: In a drug-induced model of mechanical myotonia, fatigue-inducing stimulation resolves the myotonia, which furthermore appears to be independent from the development of muscle fatigue.

Differential expression of lipid and carbohydrate metabolism genes in upper airway versus diaphragm muscle.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: Contractile properties of upper airway muscles influence upper airway patency, an issue of particular importance for subjects with obstructive sleep apnea. Expression of genes related to cellular energetics is, in turn, critical for the maintenance of contractile integrity over time during repetitive activation. We tested the hypothesis that sternohyoid has lower expression of genes related to lipid and carbohydrate energetic pathways than the diaphragm. METHODS: Sternohyoid and diaphragm from normal adult rats were examined with gene expression arrays. Analysis focused on genes belonging to Gene Ontology (GO) groups carbohydrate metabolism and lipid metabolism. RESULTS: There were 433 genes with at least +/- 2-fold significant differential expression between sternohyoid and diaphragm, of which 192 had sternohyoid > diaphragm and 241 had diaphragm > sternohyoid expression. Among genes with higher sternohyoid expression, there was over-representation of the GO group carbohydrate metabolism (P = 0.0053, n = 13 genes, range of differential expression 2.1- to 6.2-fold) but not lipid metabolism (P = 0.44). Conversely, among genes with higher diaphragm expression, there was over-representation of the GO group lipid metabolism (P = 0.0000065, n = 32 genes, range of differential expression 2.0- to 37.9-fold) but not carbohydrate metabolism (P = 0.23). Nineteen genes with diaphragm > sternohyoid expression were related to fatty acid metabolism (P = 0.000000058), in particular fatty acid beta oxidation and biosynthesis in the mitochondria. CONCLUSIONS: Sternohyoid has much lower gene expression than diaphragm for mitochondrial enzymes that participate in fatty acid oxidation and biosynthesis. This likely contributes to the lower fatigue resistance of pharyngeal upper airway muscles compared with the diaphragm.

Effects of acute low-temperature events on development of Erysiphe necator and susceptibility of Vitis vinifera.

Growth and development of Erysiphe necator (syn. Uncinula necator) has been extensively studied under controlled conditions, primarily with a focus on development of grapevine powdery mildew within the optimal temperature range and the lethal effects of high temperatures. However, little is known of the effect of cold temperatures (above freezing but <8 degrees C) on pathogen development or host resistance. Pretreatment of susceptible Vitis vinifera leaf tissue by exposure to cold temperatures (2 to 8 degrees C for 2 to 8 h) reduced infection efficiency and colony expansion when tissues were subsequently inoculated. Furthermore, nascent colonies exposed to similar cold events exhibited hyphal mortality, reduced expansion, and increased latent periods. Historical weather data and an analysis of the radiational cooling of leaf tissues in the field indicated that early-season cold events capable of inducing the foregoing responses occur commonly and frequently across many if not most viticultural regions worldwide. These phenomena may partially explain (i) the unexpectedly slow development of powdery mildew during the first month after budbreak in some regions and (ii) the sudden increase in epidemic development once seasonal temperatures increase above the threshold for acute cold events.

Contrast between cardiac left ventricle and diaphragm muscle in expression of genes involved in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism.

The heart and diaphragm both need appropriate metabolic machinery to ensure long-term energy supplies, as they must contract rhythmically without cessation for the entire lifetime of the organism to ensure homeostasis of oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange. However, their energy requirements differ due to disparities in mechanical loads. Understanding how these two muscles converge and diverge in their approaches to meeting their metabolic demands may suggest novel strategies for improving cardiac and skeletal muscle long-term performance in health and disease. To assess this at a transcriptional level, expression of genes involved in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism was assessed using microarrays in rats. There were 594 genes with >2-fold differential expression between left ventricle of the heart and diaphragm; 307 were expressed heart>diaphragm and 287 diaphragm>heart. Assignment to gene ontology groups revealed over-representation for "carbohydrate metabolism" (P=0.005, n=32 genes or 5.4% of all genes with differential expression) and "lipid metabolism" (P=0.0012, n=48 genes or 8.1% of all genes with differential expression). For carbohydrate there were 14 genes with heart>diaphragm and 18 genes with diaphragm>heart, and for lipid there were 30 genes with heart>diaphragm and 18 genes with diaphragm>heart. The magnitude of differential expression between heart and diaphragm ranged up to 30-fold for carbohydrate and up to 59-fold for lipid. Carbohydrate-related genes were almost all involved in energy metabolism (e.g. Pfkm, Pgm1, Pgam1, Pfkfb1, Pfkfb2), whereas lipid-related genes were involved in energetics as well as other cellular processes; for both groups this included genes involved in rate-limiting metabolic steps. Data thus indicate that diaphragm and heart have both shared and differential transcriptional strategies for ensuring long-term energy supplies, with a relative favoring of lipid metabolism in the heart and carbohydrate metabolism in the diaphragm.

Inotropic effects of the K+ channel blocker 3,4-diaminopyridine on fatigued diaphragm muscle.

K(+) channels play important roles in skeletal muscle contraction by regulating action potential duration. Blocking these channels, for example with 3,4-diaminopyridine (DAP), augments muscle force considerably, and these force increases are maintained well during fatigue-inducing contractions. The present study tested the hypothesis that K(+) channel blockade also improves force of previously fatigued muscle. Rat diaphragm underwent fatigue-inducing stimulation in vitro with four different stimulation protocols consisting of 20 Hz vs. 50 Hz trains and 1 min vs. 4 min stimulation durations. DAP administered at the onset of the recovery period produced significant force increases irrespective of the amount of antecedent force loss. These force gains considerably exceeded those resulting from normal force recovery in untreated muscle. Furthermore contraction time was prolonged by DAP in all cases, and half-relaxation time was prolonged by DAP in most cases. Several differences were found compared with previous studies of DAP in fresh muscle, including smaller magnitude and slower time course of force increases. Intracellular electrophysiological recordings found smaller effects of DAP on action potential overshoot and time-depolarization integral in previously stimulated compared with fresh muscle. These data indicate that K(+) channel blockade does indeed increase force of fatigued diaphragm, but to an attenuated extent relative to its effects on non-fatigued muscle, which can be explained on the basis of electrophysiological findings. Nonetheless DAP-induced force increases were usually sufficient to restore force to values present prior to the onset of fatigue-inducing stimulation.