Sequence capture identifies fastidious chytrid fungi directly from host tissue.

The chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) was discovered in 1998 as the cause of chytridiomycosis, an emerging infectious disease causing mass declines in amphibian populations worldwide. The rapid population declines of the 1970s-1990s were likely caused by the spread of a highly virulent lineage belonging to the Bd-GPL clade that was introduced to naïve susceptible populations. Multiple genetically distinct and regional lineages of Bd have since been isolated and sequenced, greatly expanding the known biological diversity within this fungal pathogen. To date, most Bd research has been restricted to the limited number of samples that could be isolated using culturing techniques, potentially causing a selection bias for strains that can grow on media and missing other unculturable or fastidious strains that are also present on amphibians. We thus attempted to characterize potentially non-culturable genetic lineages of Bd from distinct amphibian taxa using sequence capture technology on DNA extracted from host tissue and swabs. We focused our efforts on host taxa from two different regions that likely harbored distinct Bd clades: (1) wild-caught leopard frogs (Rana) from North America, and (2) a Japanese Giant Salamander (Andrias japonicus) at the Smithsonian Institution's National Zoological Park that exhibited signs of disease and tested positive for Bd using qPCR, but multiple attempts failed to isolate and culture the strain for physiological and genetic characterization. We successfully enriched for and sequenced thousands of fungal genes from both host clades, and Bd load was positively associated with number of recovered Bd sequences. Phylogenetic reconstruction placed all the Rana-derived strains in the Bd-GPL clade. In contrast, the A. japonicus strain fell within the Bd-Asia3 clade, expanding the range of this clade and generating additional genomic data to confirm its placement. The retrieved ITS locus matched public barcoding data from wild A. japonicus and Bd infections found on other amphibians in India and China, suggesting that this uncultured clade is widespread across Asia. Our study underscores the importance of recognizing and characterizing the hidden diversity of fastidious strains in order to reconstruct the spatiotemporal and evolutionary history of Bd. The success of the sequence capture approach highlights the utility of directly sequencing pathogen DNA from host tissue to characterize cryptic diversity that is missed by culture-reliant approaches.

Ranking the risk of animal-to-human spillover for newly discovered viruses.

The death toll and economic loss resulting from the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic are stark reminders that we are vulnerable to zoonotic viral threats. Strategies are needed to identify and characterize animal viruses that pose the greatest risk of spillover and spread in humans and inform public health interventions. Using expert opinion and scientific evidence, we identified host, viral, and environmental risk factors contributing to zoonotic virus spillover and spread in humans. We then developed a risk ranking framework and interactive web tool, SpillOver, that estimates a risk score for wildlife-origin viruses, creating a comparative risk assessment of viruses with uncharacterized zoonotic spillover potential alongside those already known to be zoonotic. Using data from testing 509,721 samples from 74,635 animals as part of a virus discovery project and public records of virus detections around the world, we ranked the spillover potential of 887 wildlife viruses. Validating the risk assessment, the top 12 were known zoonotic viruses, including SARS-CoV-2. Several newly detected wildlife viruses ranked higher than known zoonotic viruses. Using a scientifically informed process, we capitalized on the recent wealth of virus discovery data to systematically identify and prioritize targets for investigation. The publicly accessible SpillOver platform can be used by policy makers and health scientists to inform research and public health interventions for prevention and rapid control of disease outbreaks. SpillOver is a living, interactive database that can be refined over time to continue to improve the quality and public availability of information on viral threats to human health.

Surgical placement of implantable cardiac loop recorders in great apes.

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in zoologically managed adult great apes, accounting for 29%-77% of adult deaths in the North American population depending on the species. In an effort to better understand the underlying causes of heart disease, implantable loop recorders (ILRs) have been used in some cases to monitor great apes with suspected or known cases of arrhythmia. This is a 10-year review of the Great Ape Heart Project's experience of implanting 21 ILRs in 7 gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla; 9 total ILR devices), 5 chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes, 11 total ILR devices), and 1 orangutan (Pongo abelii, 1 ILR device) in an effort to develop effective methods for surgical implantation and remote collection of the data for analysis.

Home range, sleeping site use, and band fissioning in hamadryas baboons: Improved estimates using GPS collars.

Variation in spatial and temporal distribution of resources drives animal movement patterns. Links between ecology and behavior are particularly salient for the multilevel society of hamadryas baboons, in which social units cleave and coalesce over time in response to ecological factors. Here, we used data from GPS collars to estimate home range size and assess temporal patterns of sleeping site use in a band of hamadryas baboons in Awash National Park, Ethiopia. We used GPS data derived from 2 to 3 collared baboons over three 8-12-month collaring intervals to estimate annual and monthly home ranges using kernel density estimators (KDEs) and minimum convex polygons (MCPs). The 95% KDE home range was 64.11 km2 for Collaring Interval I (July 2015-March 2016), 85.52 km2 for Collaring Interval II (October 2016-October 2017), 76.43 km2 for Collaring Interval III (July 2018-May 2019), and 75.25 km2 across all three collaring intervals. MCP home ranges were 103.46 km2 for Collaring Interval I, 97.90 km2 for Collaring Interval II, 105.22 km2 for Collaring Interval III, and 129.33 km2 overall. Ninety-five percent KDE home range sizes did not differ across months, nor correlate with temperature or precipitation, but monthly MCP home ranges increased with monthly precipitation. Our data also revealed a southward home range shift over time and seven previously unknown sleeping sites, three of which were used more often during the wet season. Band cohesion was highest during dry months and lowest during wet months, with fissioning occurring more frequently at higher temperatures. One pair of collared individuals from Collaring Interval III spent 95% of nights together, suggesting they were members of the same clan. Our results both suggest that previous studies have underestimated the home range size of hamadryas baboons and highlight the benefits of remote data collection.

Cefovecin pharmacokinetics after single-dose intramuscular administration in cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus).

Cefovecin is a third-generation cephalosporin with potential value for use in exotic felids due to its long duration of action. A sparse sampling protocol was implemented with 18 zoo-housed cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) to evaluate the pharmacokinetics of cefovecin (Convenia® ) after a single 8 mg/kg intramuscular injection. Blood was collected serially for 15 days following administration, and plasma cefovecin concentrations were determined using high-pressure liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection. Pharmacokinetic parameters were estimated using population pharmacokinetic methods and non-linear mixed effects modeling (NLME). Cefovecin was well tolerated by all cats, with no adverse effects observed. Peak plasma cefovecin concentration was 84.75 µg/ml, with a mean residence time of 207.9 h and an elimination half-life of 144.1 h (6.00 days). Plasma concentrations of cefovecin were maintained >7 µg/ml in all individuals for the entire study duration (15 days). These concentrations are lower, and the half-life slightly shorter, than the values reported for domestic cats. Cefovecin was highly protein-bound (approximately 99.9%) in cheetah plasma, which is nearly identical to domestic cats. These results indicate that cefovecin is potentially useful as a long-acting antibiotic in cheetahs.

Effects of Lupron and surgical castration on fecal androgen metabolite concentrations and intermale aggression in capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris).

To curb agonistic interactions in a bachelor group of three male capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris), a single dose of leuprolide acetate (Lupron®) was used in an attempt to chemically sterilize the males. Concurrently, fecal androgen metabolite (FAM) concentrations were quantified via enzyme immunoassay to monitor changes in testosterone production after injection of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist. When Lupron proved ineffective in suppressing intraspecific aggression, surgical castration was performed on two males, with continued noninvasive endocrine monitoring. In all three capybaras, FAM concentrations increased initially as a result of the luteinizing hormone surge, but then decreased significantly following chemical sterilization. Surgical castration resulted in further, persistent declines in FAM concentrations in two males, while the third, intact male demonstrated a rise in FAM to pre-Lupron concentrations at 8.5 and 9.5-month postadministration. Despite successful suppression of sperm and testosterone production, intermale aggression continued, ultimately necessitating separation of the animals and transfer to other holding institutions. Under this set of conditions, a single Lupron dose was inadequate for suppressing intraspecific aggression in a group of three males with a pre-established history of aggression.

PERINATAL CENTRILOBULAR HEPATIC NECROSIS IN GIANT PANDAS (AILUROPODA MELANOLEUCA): A RETROSPECTIVE STUDY.

Between 1983 and 2012, six giant panda cubs (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) born at a zoological institution were stillborn or died between the ages of 3 and 200 h. Two of the six cubs had panhepatic centrilobular hepatic necrosis (CHN), granulocytic extramedullary hematopoiesis (GEM), positive liver culture for Staphylococcus species, and terminal liver failure. Another low-weight cub was administered oxygen therapy immediately after birth and developed hyaline membranes in air spaces and hepatic necrosis restricted to the hilar region. A retrospective analysis of liver and lung lesions, pulmonary microanatomy, blood-gas barrier ultrastructure, and hepatic myofibroblast proliferation was conducted on the six cubs. Neonates with CHN had concurrent severe periportal GEM accompanied by severe myofibroblast proliferation. The pulmonary blood-gas barrier was markedly increased in one cub with CHN. Developmentally, the lungs of all but one cub were at the late saccular stage, and the lowest-weight cub was in early saccular stage, consistent with immaturity, and had pneumonia comparable to neonatal respiratory distress syndrome (RDS). Stage of lung development was eliminated as the primary factor leading to CHN. The pathogenesis of CHN in these neonates is proposed to be transformation of hepatic stellate cells to myofibroblasts initiating blockage and microvascular constriction of hepatic sinusoids, resulting in insufficient perfusion and cellular hypoxia of hepatocytes surrounding central veins in acinar zone 3.

Causes of morbidity in captive African lions (Panthera leo) in North America, 2001-2016.

The lion (Panthera leo) is an iconic resident of zoos and wild animal parks throughout the world. Regular assessment of the morbidity of captive lions is necessary to address wellness concerns and improve the healthcare and management of this vulnerable species. In an effort to understand disease morbidity broadly and guide future inquiries into captive lion health, we distributed a questionnaire that emphasized diseases of organ systems rather than individual diagnoses. We sent the questionnaire to 108 American Zoo and Aquarium Association (AZA) institutions housing lions between 2001 and 2016. Fifty-six facilities responded of which 32 responses had usable data for 111 lions. Responses were compiled and analyzed with respect to age, class, and sex. Neoplasia, renal disease, and dental disease were the most common causes of morbidity in these captive lions. Older animals generally experienced a higher prevalence of multiple types of disease. Three cases of hypertrophic cardiomyopathies (HCM) were reported in nearly 40% (3/8) of cardiovascular diseases and 3% (3/111) of disease cases overall, which is the first report of HCM in lions, to the authors' knowledge. There is a relative paucity of literature on lion and large felid cardiovascular conditions, which suggests that this may be an understudied area of lion health. This broad assessment of morbidities present in captive lion populations aimed to identify key areas for further research and screenings. Management priorities of captive lions should include prevention strategies for dental disease and trauma, frequent screening for renal disease and neoplasia, and further research into cardiovascular health.

COMPARISON OF CIRCULATING IRON, TOTAL IRON BINDING CAPACITY, AND PERCENT TRANSFERRIN SATURATION IN WILD AND CAPTIVE KORI BUSTARDS ( ARDEOTIS KORI).

The kori bustard ( Ardeotis kori) is one of the largest extant flighted birds and is displayed in zoos primarily in North America and Europe. In captivity, kori bustard diets are primarily based on animal proteins, whereas in the wild these birds eat a wide variety of plants, insects, and small vertebrate prey. The purpose of this study was to compare circulating iron, total iron binding capacity, and percent transferrin saturation levels in apparently healthy wild and captive kori bustards. Adult captive kori bustards had slightly higher percent transferrin saturation levels than juvenile captive birds, although this finding was not statistically significant. This information can be referenced as a guide for the assessment of nutrition and health in captive birds.

CARDIORESPIRATORY EFFECTS OF DEXMEDETOMIDINE-BUTORPHANOL-MIDAZOLAM (DBM): A FULLY REVERSIBLE ANESTHETIC PROTOCOL IN CAPTIVE AND SEMI-FREE-RANGING CHEETAHS (ACINONYX JUBATUS).

Multiple anesthesia protocols have been used in the cheetah ( Acinonyx jubatus ). Twenty healthy, captive cheetahs were immobilized with dexmedetomidine (15.8 ± 1.9 µg/kg), butorphanol (0.22 ± 0.03 mg/kg), and midazolam (0.18 ± 0.03 mg/kg) by intramuscular injection. Induction, recumbency, and recovery times were recorded, and physiologic parameters were monitored. Anesthesia was antagonized with atipamezole (0.125 ± 0.02 mg/kg) and naltrexone (0.1 ± 0.014 mg/kg) intramuscularly. All cheetahs were safely anesthetized with this protocol. Cheetahs were laterally recumbent by 8 ± 3.5 min. Cardiorespiratory values were stable throughout the length of anesthesia. Moderate hypertension, with systolic blood pressure ranging from 178 ± 19.8 mm Hg, was initially observed but decreased over time. There was a statistical decreasing trend in temperature; SpO2; and systolic, mean, and diastolic blood pressure, but not in heart rate and end-tidal CO2. Recoveries were rapid, with cheetahs standing by 11.3 ± 5.7 min postreversal administration. This is the first report of a dexmedetomidine-butorphanol-midazolam anesthetic combination in cheetahs. Overall, this anesthetic protocol proved to be safe and effective.

PHARMACOKINETICS OF A SINGLE DOSE OF METRONIDAZOLE AFTER RECTAL ADMINISTRATION IN CAPTIVE ASIAN ELEPHANTS (ELEPHAS MAXIMUS).

Metronidazole is a nitroimidazole antibacterial and antiprotozoal drug with bacteriocidal activity against a broad range of anaerobic bacteria. It is a recognized treatment for elephants diagnosed with anaerobic bacterial infection or protozoal disease or exhibiting signs of colonic impaction, diarrhea, and colic. This study evaluated the pharmacokinetics of rectally administered metronidazole (15 mg/kg) in five adult female Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Serum samples were collected from each animal for 96 hr after rectal administration of metronidazole. Serum concentrations of metronidazole and its primary metabolite, hydroxymetronidazole, were measured via ultraperformance liquid chromatography. Data were analyzed via a noncompartmental pharmacokinetic approach. Results indicated that serum levels of metronidazole were quantifiable at the 0.25 hr time point and absent in all elephants by the 96 hr time point. The serum peak concentration (mean ± SD, 13.15 ± 2.59 µg/ml) and area under the curve from time 0 to infinity (mean ± SD, 108.79 ± 24.77 hr × µg/ml) were higher than that reported in domestic horses after similar usage. Concurrently, the time of maximum serum concentration (mean ± SD, 1.2 ± 0.45 hr) and terminal elimination half-life (harmonic mean ± pseudo-SD, 7.85 ± 0.93 hr) were longer when compared to equine reports. Rectal administration of metronidazole was well tolerated and rapidly absorbed in all study elephants. Based on the findings in this study, metronidazole administered at a single dose of 15 mg/kg per rectum in the Asian elephant is likely to result in serum concentrations above 4 µg/ml for 8 hr and above 2 µg/ml for 24 hr after treatment is administered. Dosing recommendations should reflect the mean inhibitory concentration of metronidazole for each pathogen.

CEREBELLAR AND MESENCEPHALON NEOPLASIA IN A NILE HIPOPPOTAMUS (HIPPOPOTAMUS AMPHIBIOUS).

A 52-yr-old female Nile hippopotamus ( Hippopotamus amphibious ) was presented for acute onset anorexia, depression, lethargy, instability, and weakness in the pelvic limbs. Clinical signs were rapidly progressive, despite empiric therapy with anti-inflammatory medications, resulting in the death of the animal. Gross necropsy evaluation revealed two tan, firm masses in the cerebellum and mesencephalon and a single mass in the right cranial adrenal gland. All three masses had a similar histologic morphology, and immunohistochemical investigation confirmed the general diagnosis of an adenocarcinoma, but the exact cell of origin remains unclear. In addition, there was evidence of neuroendocrine differentiation in the adrenal gland and not in the brain. These findings suggest either two distinct neoplastic populations or a metastasizing adenocarcinoma with focal endocrine differentiation. In dogs, anal sac and clitoral adenocarcinomas have been reported to undergo focal endocrine differentiation, and both can cause widespread metastasis while the primary lesion can be small. A small neoplasm of these glands may have been missed on gross examination.

COMPARISON OF TWO α2-ADRENERGIC AGONISTS ON URINE CONTAMINATION OF SEMEN COLLECTED BY ELECTROEJACULATION IN CAPTIVE AND SEMI-FREE-RANGING CHEETAH (ACINONYX JUBATUS).

Alpha2-adrenergic agonists are used to immobilize many veterinary species, but use has been infrequently linked to urine contamination of semen collected via electroejaculation. The objective of the study was to compare the α2-agonists medetomidine and dexmedetomidine on urine contamination of semen in anesthetized cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) during electroejaculation procedures. From 2009-2012, a retrospective medical record review revealed 21 anesthesia events in 12 adult male cheetahs. Animals were immobilized with combinations of Telazol® (2.33±0.43 mg/kg) and ketamine (2.38±1 mg/kg); Telazol (1.17±0.14 mg/kg), ketamine (1.17±0.14 mg/kg), and medetomidine (0.012±0.0017 mg/kg); or Telazol (1.59±0.1 mg/kg), ketamine (1.59±0.1 mg/kg) and dexmedetomidine (0.01±0.001 mg/kg). Semen was successfully collected in all animals; four animals anesthetized with medetomidine had urine contamination (P=0.037). Medetomidine may contribute to urine contamination; however, further investigation is needed to determine significance in cheetahs.

Evaluation of captive gibbons (Hylobates spp., Nomascus spp., Symphalangus spp.) in North American Zoological Institutions for Gibbon Ape Leukemia Virus (GALV).

This study evaluated 79 captive gibbons (Hylobates, Nomascus, and Symphalangus spp.) within 30 North American zoological institutions for evidence of exposure to and possible infection with gibbon ape leukemia virus (GALV). Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) on gibbon serum samples revealed the presence of antibodies against GALV antigens in 28% of animals, indicating previous exposure or possibly protective immunity to GALV. Virus detection in gibbon blood or serum using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or co-culture of gibbon peripheral blood mononuclear cells with human cells was negative for all samples submitted. The majority (19/27, 70%) of animals with reported health conditions were clinically healthy at the time of sample collection. Historically accrued clinical data were used to assess association of diseases in gibbons antibody positive for GALV. The results suggest captive gibbons could mount an immune response to GALV and show no evidence of infection. There was no association with neoplastic conditions in seropositive animals. The potential role of gibbons as a reservoir for GALV and the role of GALV as an epizoonotic-zoonotic agent or as a contributor to gibbon ape morbidity and mortality are not substantiated by the study findings.

Metronomic Chemotherapy for Myxosarcoma Treatment in a Kori Bustard (Ardeotis kori).

A 22-year-old, wild-caught male kori bustard (Ardeotis kori) developed a large, slow-growing subcutaneous mass over the keel. The mass was surgically debulked and histopathologically described as a myxosarcoma. Surgical dehiscence and concurrent local tumor regrowth, with no evidence of metastasis, occurred over the subsequent 3 months, necessitating 2 additional surgical procedures to close the wound. At 19 weeks after the initial procedure, a second debulking surgical procedure was performed, at which time carboplatin-impregnated matrix beads were placed in the lesion. Moderate local tumor regrowth was clinically appreciable 4 weeks after surgery, at which time an oral metronomic chemotherapeutic protocol consisting of daily cyclophosphamide (10 mg/m(2)) and meloxicam (0.1 mg/kg) was initiated. Four months later, the tumor was no longer palpable. While oral therapy was discontinued during the breeding season, mass regrowth was observed, and the mass was surgically debulked before reinitiating oral chemotherapy. Treatment was extended for over 1 year with no hematologic evaluation or serum biochemical abnormalities, and the bird otherwise remained clinically healthy. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a myxosarcoma in a bustard species and the first report of successful clinical application of metronomic chemotherapy in an avian species.

Comparison of antibody response to a non-adjuvanted, live canarypox-vectored recombinant rabies vaccine and a killed, adjuvanted rabies vaccine in Eld's deer (Rucervus eldi thamin).

Captive Eld's deer (Rucervus eldi thamin) were evaluated for the presence of rabies virus-neutralizing antibodies using a rapid fluorescent focus inhibition after vaccination with either a live canarypox-vectored recombinant rabies vaccine or a killed monovalent rabies vaccine. Twelve deer were vaccinated with 1.0 ml of killed, adjuvanted, monovalent rabies vaccine at 5-33 mo of age then annually thereafter, and 14 deer were vaccinated with 1.0 ml nonadjuvanted, live canarypox-vectored rabies vaccine at 3-15 mo of age then annually thereafter. Banked serum was available or collected prospectively from deer at 6 mo and 1 yr after initial vaccination, then collected annually. Rabies virus-neutralizing antibodies considered adequate (>0.5 IU/ml) were present in 20/34 samples vaccinated with canarypox-vectored rabies vaccine and in 12/14 samples vaccinated with killed adjuvanted rabies vaccine. Poor seroconversion was noted in deer less than 6 mo of age vaccinated with the canarypox-vectored rabies vaccine.

Cryptic impacts of temperature variability on amphibian immune function.

Ectothermic species living in temperate regions can experience rapid and potentially stressful changes in body temperature driven by abrupt weather changes. Yet, among amphibians, the physiological impacts of short-term temperature variation are largely unknown. Using an ex situ population of Cryptobranchus alleganiensis, an aquatic North American salamander, we tested the hypothesis that naturally occurring periods of temperature variation negatively impact amphibian health, either through direct effects on immune function or by increasing physiological stress. We exposed captive salamanders to repeated cycles of temperature fluctuations recorded in the population's natal stream and evaluated behavioral and physiological responses, including plasma complement activity (i.e. bacteria killing) against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli and Aeromonas hydrophila. The best-fit model (ΔAICc=0, wi=0.9992) revealed 70% greater P. aeruginosa killing after exposure to variable temperatures and no evidence of thermal acclimation. The same model predicted 50% increased E. coli killing, but had weaker support (ΔAICc=1.8, wi=0.2882). In contrast, plasma defenses were ineffective against A. hydrophila, and other health indicators (leukocyte ratios, growth rates and behavioral patterns) were maintained at baseline values. Our data suggest that amphibians can tolerate, and even benefit from, natural patterns of rapid warming/cooling. Specifically, temperature variation can elicit increased activity of the innate immune system. This immune response may be adaptive in an unpredictable environment, and is undetectable by conventional health indicators (and hence considered cryptic). Our findings highlight the need to consider naturalistic patterns of temperature variation when predicting species' susceptibility to climate change.

A minimally invasive method for gender determination in the prehensile-tailed porcupine (Coendou prehensilis).

Prehensile-tailed porcupines (Coendou prehensilis), like other rodents, lack external sexual traits, making it difficult to non-invasively determine their gender. By exploiting genetic differences between the X and the Y chromosome, we developed a simple genetic test to determine the gender of Coendous from shed quills. We Sanger sequenced a short portion (195 bp) of the zinc finger protein gene of known male (XY) Coendous to identify positions that are polymorphic between the X and Y chromosomes at this locus. By directly sequencing this fragment, we were able to correctly determine (confirmed via anatomical sexing) the gender of male and female Coendous by the presences or absence of polymorphisms in the resulting chromatograms. This assay is simple, quick and is applicable to other porcupine species.

Causes of morbidity and mortality in captive kori bustards (Ardeotis kori) in the United States.

The kori bustard (Ardeotis kori) is a popular avian resident of zoos and wild animal parks throughout North America and Europe. As this species' numbers continue to decline throughout its native African range, the need for its successful captive management becomes increasingly apparent. To this end, an understanding of the factors causing morbidity and mortality in the captive kori bustard population is critical. Here, the demographics, husbandry practices, and causes of morbidity and mortality of 94% of captive kori bustards (198 individuals) housed in zoos throughout the United States between 1988 and 2008 are described, and suggestions for captive management targets in this species are presented. The most common clinical and pathologic findings observed were lameness (48 cases), gastrointestinal parasitism (45 cases), and wing integumentary trauma (32 cases). Trauma was a very common cause of morbidity (135 cases) and was the most common cause of mortality (53 individuals, 40% of deceased animals). Considering the high prevalence of traumatic injury and death observed in this population, captive management of kori bustards should focus on developing strategies that minimize opportunity for injury. Priorities include preventing exposure to potentially hostile exhibit mates, decreasing stress associated with human interactions, and researching the effects of diet on skeletal development of young birds.

Retrospective analysis of mortalities in elephant shrews (Macroscelididae) and tree shrews (Tupaiidae) at the Smithsonian National Zoological Park, USA.

Investigations into the cause of mortality and other important findings at necropsy were made into two families of small mammals at the Smithsonian National Zoological Park (SNZP; USA). Necropsy reports from 1976 through 2008 were reviewed for all elephant shrews in family Macroscelididae (n = 118) and all tree shrews in family Tupaiidae (n = 90) that lived for greater than 30 days at the SNZP. Causes of mortality were classified by body system and etiology to identify prevalent diseases and trends across demographics for each family. In elephant shrews, gastrointestinal disease (n = 18) and respiratory disease (n = 22) were important causes of mortality with an increased prevalence of pneumonia in adult males. Trauma was a common cause of mortality in tree shrews (n = 22). Cryptococcosis was an important cause of mortality in both families (n = 8 elephant shrews; n = 13 tree shrews). Bacterial infections, often systemic at time of mortality, were also common (n = 16 elephant shrews; n = 17 tree shrews). Arteriosclerosis was a common comorbid pathology noted at necropsy in certain populations, seen only in Elephantulus rufescens in the family Macroscelididae (n = 22) and in only males in the family Tupaiidae (n = 11). Gongylonemiasis was seen commonly in tree shrews (n = 15), as a comorbid finding, or in 5 cases directly leading to mortality. Awareness of the prevalence of these diseases can help guide prevention and intervention strategies.