Taking the pulse of brain death: A meta-analysis of the natural history of brain death with somatic support.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The conceptualization of brain death (BD) was pivotal in the shaping of judicial and medical practices. Nonetheless, media reports of alleged recovery from BD reinforced the criticism that this construct is a self-fulfilling prophecy (by treatment withdrawal or organ donation). We meta-analyzed the natural history of BD when somatic support (SS) is maintained. METHODS: Publications on BD were eligible if the following were reported: aggregated data on its natural history with SS; and patient-level data that allowed censoring at the time of treatment withdrawal or organ donation. Endpoints were as follows: rate of somatic expiration after BD with SS; BD misdiagnosis, including "functionally brain-dead" patients (FBD; i.e. after the pronouncement of brain-death, ≥1 findings were incongruent with guidelines for its diagnosis, albeit the lethal prognosis was not altered); and length and predictors of somatic survival. RESULTS: Forty-seven articles were selected (1610 patients, years: 1969-2021). In BD patients with SS, median age was 32.9 years (range = newborn-85 years). Somatic expiration followed BD in 99.9% (95% confidence interval = 89.8-100). Mean somatic survival was 8.0 days (range = 1.6 h-19.5 years). Only age at BD diagnosis was an independent predictor of somatic survival length (coefficient = -11.8, SE = 4, p < 0.01). Nine BD misdiagnoses were detected; eight were FBD, and one newborn fully recovered. No patient ever recovered from chronic BD (≥1 week somatic survival). CONCLUSIONS: BD diagnosis is reliable. Diagnostic criteria should be fine-tuned to avoid the small incidence of misdiagnosis, which nonetheless does not alter the prognosis of FBD patients. Age at BD diagnosis is inversely proportional to somatic survival.

Enhanced recovery protocols after surgery: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials in cardiac surgery.

BACKGROUND: Previous meta-analyses combining randomized and observational evidence in cardiac surgery have shown positive impact of enhanced recovery protocols after surgery (ERAS) on postoperative outcomes. However, definitive data based on randomized studies are missing, and the entirety of the ERAS measures and pathway, as recently systematized in guidelines and consensus statements, have not been captured in the published studies. The available literature actually focuses on "ERAS-like" protocols or only limited number of ERAS measures. This study aims at analyzing all randomized studies applying ERAS-like protocols in cardiac surgery for perioperative outcomes. METHODS: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) comparing ERAS-like with standard protocols of perioperative care was performed (PROSPERO registration CRD42021283765). PRISMA guidelines were used for abstracting and assessing data. RESULTS: Thirteen single center RCTs (N = 1704, 850 in ERAS-like protocol and 854 in the standard care group) were selected. The most common procedures were surgical revascularization (66.3%) and valvular surgery (24.9%). No difference was found in the incidence of inhospital mortality between the ERAS and standard treatment group (risk ratio [RR] 0.61 [0.31; 1.20], p = 0.15). ERAS was associated with reduced intensive care unit (standardized mean difference [SMD] -0.57, p < 0.01) and hospital stay (SMD -0.23, p < 0.01) and reduced rates of overall complications when compared to the standard protocol (RR 0.60, p < 0.01) driven by the reduction in stroke (RR 0.29 [0.13; 0.62], p < 0.01). A significant heterogeneity in terms of the elements of the ERAS protocol included in the studies was observed. CONCLUSIONS: ERAS-like protocols have no impact on short-term survival after cardiac surgery but allows for a faster hospital discharge while potentially reducing surgical complications. However, this study highlights a significant nonadherence and heterogeneity to the entirety of ERAS protocols warranting further RCTs in this field including a greater number of elements of the framework.

Femoral arterial cannulation for surgical repair of stanford type A aortic dissection.

BACKGROUND: The benefits and harms associated with femoral artery cannulation over other sites of arterial cannulation for surgical repair of acute Stanford type A aortic dissection (TAAD) are not conclusively established. METHODS: We evaluated the outcomes after surgery for TAAD using femoral artery cannulation, supra-aortic arterial cannulation (i.e., innominate/subclavian/axillary artery cannulation), and direct aortic cannulation. RESULTS: 3751 (96.1%) patients were eligible for this analysis. In-hospital mortality using supra-aortic arterial cannulation was comparable to femoral artery cannulation (17.8% vs. 18.4%; adjusted OR 0.846, 95% CI 0.799-1.202). This finding was confirmed in 1028 propensity score-matched pairs of patients with supra-aortic arterial cannulation or femoral artery cannulation (17.5% vs. 17.0%, p = 0.770). In-hospital mortality after direct aortic cannulation was lower compared to femoral artery cannulation (14.0% vs. 18.4%, adjusted OR 0.703, 95% CI 0.529-0.934). Among 583 propensity score-matched pairs of patients, direct aortic cannulation was associated with lower rates of in-hospital mortality (13.4% vs. 19.6%, p = 0.004) compared to femoral artery cannulation. Switching of the primary site of arterial cannulation was associated with increased rate of in-hospital mortality (36.5% vs. 17.0%; adjusted OR 2.730, 95% CI 1.564-4.765). Ten-year mortality was similar in the study cohorts. CONCLUSIONS: In this study, the outcomes of surgery for TAAD using femoral arterial cannulation were comparable to those using supra-aortic arterial cannulation. However, femoral arterial cannulation was associated with higher in-hospital mortality than direct aortic cannulation. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov registration code: NCT04831073.

The Ross Operation Over 55 Years Later: Comparing Surgical Techniques and Outcomes.

The Ross procedure is often considered the best option for a small group of patients. Some critics argue that harvesting the pulmonary artery again can cause problems, such as exposing the native pulmonary autograft to systemic pressures and requiring further intervention. However, the pulmonary autograft is a living tissue that can adjust to growing conditions and undergo remodelling. The pathophysiology of living tissue, harvesting techniques, indications for use of pulmonary autograft in aortic valve disease, contraindications, and variations of pulmonary autograft as an aortic conduit are discussed in this seminar. Following recent updates from high-volume centres, the indications, contraindications, techniques, and variations of pulmonary autograft as an aortic conduit and, in the absence of substantial well-designed randomised controlled trials, areas where the Ross procedure needs to be reaffirmed as part of the surgical armamentarium are also discussed. Furthermore, increasing evidence suggests that the Ross procedure produces better long-term results than traditional aortic valve replacement in young and middle-aged adults. To enable cardiologists and surgeons to make appropriate decisions for their patients with aortic valve disease, the author provides a complete review of the most recent published studies on the Ross procedure.

P2Y12 Receptor Inhibitor for Antiaggregant Therapies: From Molecular Pathway to Clinical Application.

Platelets play a significant role in hemostasis, forming plugs at sites of vascular injury to limit blood loss. However, if platelet activation is not controlled, it can lead to thrombotic events, such as myocardial infarction and stroke. To prevent this, antiplatelet agents are used in clinical settings to limit platelet activation in patients at risk of arterial thrombotic events. However, their use can be associated with a significant risk of bleeding. An enhanced comprehension of platelet signaling mechanisms should facilitate the identification of safer targets for antiplatelet therapy. Over the past decade, our comprehension of the breadth and intricacy of signaling pathways that orchestrate platelet activation has expanded exponentially. Several recent studies have provided further insight into the regulation of platelet signaling events and identified novel targets against which to develop novel antiplatelet agents. Antiplatelet drugs are essential in managing atherothrombotic vascular disease. The current antiplatelet therapy in clinical practice is limited in terms of safety and efficacy. Novel compounds have been developed in response to patient variability and resistance to aspirin and/or clopidogrel. Recent studies based on randomized controlled trials and systematic reviews have definitively demonstrated the role of antiplatelet therapy in reducing the risk of cardiovascular events. Antiplatelet therapy is the recommended course of action for patients with established atherosclerosis. These studies compared monotherapy with a P2Y12 inhibitor versus aspirin for secondary prevention. However, in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention, it is still unclear whether the efficacy of P2Y12 inhibitor monotherapy after a short course of dual antiplatelet therapy depends on the type of P2Y12 inhibitor. This paper focuses on the advanced-stage evaluation of several promising antiplatelet drugs.

Non-Coding RNA-Targeted Therapy: A State-of-the-Art Review.

The use of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) as drug targets is being researched due to their discovery and their role in disease. Targeting ncRNAs, including microRNAs (miRNAs) and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), is an attractive approach for treating various diseases, such as cardiovascular disease and cancer. This seminar discusses the current status of ncRNAs as therapeutic targets in different pathological conditions. Regarding miRNA-based drugs, this approach has made significant progress in preclinical and clinical testing for cardiovascular diseases, where the limitations of conventional pharmacotherapy are evident. The challenges of miRNA-based drugs, including specificity, delivery, and tolerability, will be discussed. New approaches to improve their success will be explored. Furthermore, it extensively discusses the potential development of targeted therapies for cardiovascular disease. Finally, this document reports on the recent advances in identifying and characterizing microRNAs, manipulating them, and translating them into clinical applications. It also addresses the challenges and perspectives towards clinical application.

In-Depth Genomic Analysis: The New Challenge in Congenital Heart Disease.

The use of next-generation sequencing has provided new insights into the causes and mechanisms of congenital heart disease (CHD). Examinations of the whole exome sequence have detected detrimental gene variations modifying single or contiguous nucleotides, which are characterised as pathogenic based on statistical assessments of families and correlations with congenital heart disease, elevated expression during heart development, and reductions in harmful protein-coding mutations in the general population. Patients with CHD and extracardiac abnormalities are enriched for gene classes meeting these criteria, supporting a common set of pathways in the organogenesis of CHDs. Single-cell transcriptomics data have revealed the expression of genes associated with CHD in specific cell types, and emerging evidence suggests that genetic mutations disrupt multicellular genes essential for cardiogenesis. Metrics and units are being tracked in whole-genome sequencing studies.

Current Outcome after Surgery for Type A Aortic Dissection.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to evaluate the outcomes of different surgical strategies for acute Stanford type A aortic dissection (TAAD). SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA: The optimal extent of aortic resection during surgery for acute TAAD is controversial. METHODS: This is a multicenter, retrospective cohort study of patients who underwent surgery for acute TAAD at 18 European hospitals. RESULTS: Out of 3902 consecutive patients, 689 (17.7%) died during the index hospitalization. Among 2855 patients who survived 3 months after surgery, 10-year observed survival was 65.3%, while country-adjusted, age-adjusted, and sex-adjusted expected survival was 81.3%, yielding a relative survival of 80.4%. Among 558 propensity score-matched pairs, total aortic arch replacement increased the risk of in-hospital (21.0% vs. 14.9%, P =0.008) and 10-year mortality (47.1% vs. 40.1%, P =0.001), without decreasing the incidence of distal aortic reoperation (10-year: 8.9% vs. 7.4%, P =0.690) compared with ascending aortic replacement. Among 933 propensity score-matched pairs, in-hospital mortality (18.5% vs. 18.0%, P =0.765), late mortality (at 10-year: 44.6% vs. 41.9%, P =0.824), and cumulative incidence of proximal aortic reoperation (at 10-year: 4.4% vs. 5.9%, P =0.190) after aortic root replacement was comparable to supracoronary aortic replacement. CONCLUSIONS: Replacement of the aortic root and aortic arch did not decrease the risk of aortic reoperation in patients with TAAD and should be performed only in the presence of local aortic injury or aneurysm. The relative survival of TAAD patients is poor and suggests that the causes underlying aortic dissection may also impact late mortality despite surgical repair of the dissected aorta.

Direct Aortic Versus Supra-Aortic Arterial Cannulation During Surgery for Acute Type A Aortic Dissection.

AIMS: In this study we evaluated the impact of direct aortic cannulation versus innominate/subclavian/axillary artery cannulation on the outcome after surgery for type A aortic dissection. METHODS: The outcomes of patients included in a multicenter European registry (ERTAAD) who underwent surgery for acute type A aortic dissection with direct aortic cannulation versus those with innominate/subclavian/axillary artery cannulation, i.e. supra-aortic arterial cannulation, were compared using propensity score matched analysis. RESULTS: Out of 3902 consecutive patients included in the registry, 2478 (63.5%) patients were eligible for this analysis. Direct aortic cannulation was performed in 627 (25.3%) patients, while supra-aortic arterial cannulation in 1851 (74.7%) patients. Propensity score matching yielded 614 pairs of patients. Among them, patients who underwent surgery for TAAD with direct aortic cannulation had significantly decreased in-hospital mortality (12.7% vs. 18.1%, p = 0.009) compared to those who had supra-aortic arterial cannulation. Furthermore, direct aortic cannulation was associated with decreased postoperative rates of paraparesis/paraplegia (2.0 vs. 6.0%, p < 0.0001), mesenteric ischemia (1.8 vs. 5.1%, p = 0.002), sepsis (7.0 vs. 14.2%, p < 0.0001), heart failure (11.2 vs. 15.2%, p = 0.043), and major lower limb amputation (0 vs. 1.0%, p = 0.031). Direct aortic cannulation showed a trend toward decreased risk of postoperative dialysis (10.1 vs. 13.7%, p = 0.051). CONCLUSIONS: This multicenter cohort study showed that direct aortic cannulation compared to supra-aortic arterial cannulation is associated with a significant reduction of the risk of in-hospital mortality after surgery for acute type A aortic dissection. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT04831073.

Surgery for delayed leaflet impingement after transcatheter closure of a paravalvular leak associated with an aortic pseudoaneurysm.

Background: Paravalvular leak (PVL) is a recognized and challenging complication after surgical or transcatheter valve replacement. The transcatheter closure of PVL has become the first-line treatment in clinical practice when the procedure is not contraindicated. Transcatheter PVL closure rests on a complex procedure and complications still occur in approximately 9% of patients. Case Report: We describe the case of a delayed mechanical prosthetic leaflet impingement after transcatheter closure of a paravalvular leak associated with a Valsalva pseudoaneurysm that required an urgent surgery. Conclusion: Aorta-left ventricle communication could be a relative contraindication to be assessed on a case-by-case basis, but transcatheter closure does not preclude subsequent attempt for surgical repair and outcome.

To Gain Insights into the Pathophysiological Mechanisms of the Thrombo-Inflammatory Process in the Atherosclerotic Plaque.

Thromboinflammation, the interplay between thrombosis and inflammation, is a significant pathway that drives cardiovascular and autoimmune diseases, as well as COVID-19. SARS-CoV-2 causes inflammation and blood clotting issues. Innate immune cells have emerged as key modulators of this process. Neutrophils, the most predominant white blood cells in humans, are strategically positioned to promote thromboinflammation. By releasing decondensed chromatin structures called neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), neutrophils can initiate an organised cell death pathway. These structures are adorned with histones, cytoplasmic and granular proteins, and have cytotoxic, immunogenic, and prothrombotic effects that can hasten disease progression. Protein arginine deiminase 4 (PAD4) catalyses the citrullination of histones and is involved in the release of extracellular DNA (NETosis). The neutrophil inflammasome is also required for this process. Understanding the link between the immunological function of neutrophils and the procoagulant and proinflammatory activities of monocytes and platelets is important in understanding thromboinflammation. This text discusses how vascular blockages occur in thromboinflammation due to the interaction between neutrophil extracellular traps and ultra-large VWF (von Willebrand Factor). The activity of PAD4 is important for understanding the processes that drive thromboinflammation by linking the immunological function of neutrophils with the procoagulant and proinflammatory activities of monocytes and platelets. This article reviews how vaso-occlusive events in thrombo-inflammation occur through the interaction of neutrophil extracellular traps with von Willebrand factor. It highlights the relevance of PAD4 in neutrophil inflammasome assembly and neutrophil extracellular traps in thrombo-inflammatory diseases such as atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease. Interaction between platelets, VWF, NETs and inflammasomes is critical for the progression of thromboinflammation in several diseases and was recently shown to be active in COVID-19.

Host-Bacterium Interaction Mechanisms in Staphylococcus aureus Endocarditis: A Systematic Review.

Staphylococci sp. are the most commonly associated pathogens in infective endocarditis, especially within high-income nations. This along with the increasing burden of healthcare, aging populations, and the protracted infection courses, contribute to a significant challenge for healthcare systems. A systematic review was conducted using relevant search criteria from PubMed, Ovid's version of MEDLINE, and EMBASE, and data were tabulated from randomized controlled trials (RCT), observational cohort studies, meta-analysis, and basic research articles. The review was registered with the OSF register of systematic reviews and followed the PRISMA reporting guidelines. Thirty-five studies met the inclusion criteria and were included in the final systematic review. The role of Staphylococcus aureus and its interaction with the protective shield and host protection functions was identified and highlighted in several studies. The interaction between infective endocarditis pathogens, vascular endothelium, and blood constituents was also explored, giving rise to the potential use of antiplatelets as preventative and/or curative agents. Several factors allow Staphylococcus aureus infections to proliferate within the host with numerous promoting and perpetuating agents. The complex interaction with the hosts' innate immunity also potentiates its virulence. The goal of this study is to attain a better understanding on the molecular pathways involved in infective endocarditis supported by S. aureus and whether therapeutic avenues for the prevention and treatment of IE can be obtained. The use of antibiotic-treated allogeneic tissues have marked antibacterial action, thereby becoming the ideal substitute in native and prosthetic valvular infections. However, the development of effective vaccines against S. aureus still requires in-depth studies.

The Roles of microRNAs in the Cardiovascular System.

The discovery of miRNAs and their role in disease represent a significant breakthrough that has stimulated and propelled research on miRNAs as targets for diagnosis and therapy. Cardiovascular disease is an area where the restrictions of early diagnosis and conventional pharmacotherapy are evident and deserve attention. Therefore, miRNA-based drugs have significant potential for development. Research and its application can make considerable progress, as seen in preclinical and clinical trials. The use of miRNAs is still experimental but has a promising role in diagnosing and predicting a variety of acute coronary syndrome presentations. Its use, either alone or in combination with currently available biomarkers, might be adopted soon, particularly if there is diagnostic ambiguity. In this review, we examine the current understanding of miRNAs as possible targets for diagnosis and treatment in the cardiovascular system. We report on recent advances in recognising and characterising miRNAs with a focus on clinical translation. The latest challenges and perspectives towards clinical application are discussed.

Learning from Controversy and Revisiting the Randomized Trials of Secondary Mitral Regurgitation.

Until recently, conventional mitral valve surgery has been the treatment of choice even in secondary mitral regurgitation. Recent evidence, however, advocates the use of transcatheter edge-to-edge mitral valve repair (TEER) of the mitral valve. This has been reflected by the change in guidelines of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association. We reviewed the literature to shed light on the risks and benefits of all interventions, surgical, transcatheter and guideline-directed medical therapy. Secondary mitral regurgitation occurs due to an imbalance between closing forces and tethering forces. Given the pathology extends beyond the valve alone, treatment should be directed at restoring the geometrical shape of the left ventricle alongside the valve. Myocardial revascularization plays a pivotal role in preventing recurrence. The role of papillary muscle approximation in addition to restrictive mitral annuloplasty should be considered in a select group of patients. We also reviewed the current literature on TEERs from the COAPT and Mitra-FR trials while highlighting the concept of proportionate/disproportionate MR which may help identify which patients benefit from mitral valve restoration. Treatment of this condition will require robust randomized trials alongside the use of state-of-the-art imaging technologies available with the full complement of the multidisciplinary team to ensure the best outcomes for each patient.

Insight from International Guidelines: do We Have Satisfactory Recommendations for Secondary Mitral Regurgitation?

Both the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the American College of Cardiology (ACC/AHA) have recently released guidelines on the management of patients with secondary mitral regurgitation. This includes defining, classifying, and assessing the severity of secondary mitral regurgitation. These guidelines are also the first to incorporate the use of transcatheter edge-to-edge repair in decision-making based on recent studies. The review highlights the strengths and shortcomings of these studies and the applicability and generalisability of these results to assist in decision-making for the heart time. It also emphasises the importance of shared decision-making via the heart team. Echocardiography plays an important role in the assessment of these patients although these may be specifically for primary mitral insufficiency. The optimal guideline-directed medical therapy should be the first line of treatment followed by mechanical intervention. The choice of intervention is best directed by a specialist multidisciplinary team. Concomitant revascularization should be performed in a subgroup of patients with severe secondary mitral regurgitation given the role of adverse LV remodelling in propagation of the dynamic secondary MR. The guidelines need further confirmation from high-quality studies in the near future to decision-making towards either TEER, mitral valve replacement, or mitral valve repair with or without a subvalvular procedure.

The role of the extracellular matrix in the development of heart valve disease: Underestimation or undercomprehension?

The function of metalloproteinases of the extracellular matrix and their inhibitors has emerged with a crucial role in valve diseases. Both the expression of matrix metalloproteinases and their inhibitors are susceptible to modification in patients with severe mitral insufficiency. This process is due to substantial changes in the collagen structure during mechanical stress on the mitral valve leaflets. Several studies have measured the level of deformation of the mitral leaflets with the use of the finite element analysis method by establishing the stiffness of the cellular and extracellular elements of the mitral valve leaflets. Evidence suggested the possible underestimation of the stiffness of the leaflets. This implies greater stress on the components of the extracellular matrix in the circumferential and radial strains that involve the mitral leaflets during chronic regurgitation. The remodeling process during mechanical stress phenomena involves both the cellular compartment and the extracellular matrix and can be adaptive or maladaptive as showed in patients who receive a pulmonary autograft to replace the diseased aortic valve. However, adaptive remodeling can be driven using resorbable polymers that interfere with the extracellular matrix. Further investigation is required for the understanding of the mechanisms that determine the structural changes of the extracellular matrix and to prevent them.

Postinflammatory rupture of right coronary artery ostium complicating Behçet disease.

INTRODUCTION: Behçet disease (BD) is a chronic relapsing inflammatory disease of unknown etiology, characterized by variable clinical manifestations. METHODS: A 28-year-old woman with BD Cardiovascular and Bipolar Disorder underwent emergency surgical treatment of ascending aortic pseudoaneurysm for ruptured right coronary ostium.A modified Bentall procedure with tricuspid annuloplasty, surgical thrombectomy, and a single coronary artery bypass using a saphenous vein graft was performed. A biological prosthesis was used initially but subsequently deteriorated. We then successfully performed a valve-in-valve (ViV) transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI). RESULTS: The postoperative recovery was uneventful and at follow-up, two years post valve procedure, the patient was completely symptom-free. She remains under long-term medical surveillance. CONCLUSION: The management of BD with cardiac involvement must be led by a multidisciplinary team.

miRNAs in Cardiac Myxoma: New Pathologic Findings for Potential Therapeutic Opportunities.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) regulate gene expression at the post-transcriptional level, contributing to all major cellular processes. The importance of miRNAs in cardiac development, heart function, and valvular heart disease has been shown in recent years, and aberrant expression of miRNA has been reported in various malignancies, such as gastric cancer and breast cancer. Different from other fields of investigation, the role of miRNAs in cardiac tumors still remains difficult to interpret due to the scarcity publications and a lack of narrative focus on this topic. In this article, we summarize the available evidence on miRNAs and cardiac myxomas and propose new pathways for future research. miRNAs play a part in modifying the expression of cardiac transcription factors (miR-335-5p), increasing cell cycle trigger factors (miR-126-3p), interfering with ceramide synthesis (miR-320a), inducing apoptosis (miR-634 and miR-122), suppressing production of interleukins (miR-217), and reducing cell proliferation (miR-218). As such, they have complex and interconnected roles. At present, the study of the complete mechanistic control of miRNA remains a crucial issue, as proper understanding of signaling pathways is essential for the forecasting of therapeutic implications. Other types of cardiac tumors still lack adequate investigation with regard to miRNA. Further research should aim at investigating the causal relationship between different miRNAs and cell overgrowth, considering both myxoma and other histological types of cardiac tumors. We hope that this review will help in understanding this fascinating molecular approach.

Cardiotoxicity of Chimeric Antigen Receptor T-Cell (CAR-T) Therapy: Pathophysiology, Clinical Implications, and Echocardiographic Assessment.

Contemporary anticancer immunotherapy with chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR-T) therapy has dramatically changed the treatment of many hematologic malignancies previously associated with poor prognosis. The clinical improvement and the survival benefit unveiled the risk of cardiotoxicity, ranging from minimal effects to severe cardiac adverse events, including death. Immunotherapy should also be proposed even in patients with pre-existing cardiovascular risk factors, thereby increasing the potential harm of cardiotoxicity. CAR-T therapy frequently results in cytokine release syndrome (CRS), and inflammatory activation is sustained by circulating cytokines that foster a positive feedback mechanism. Prompt diagnosis and treatment of CAR-T cardiotoxicity might significantly improve outcomes and reduce the burden associated with cardiovascular complications. Clinical and echocardiographic examinations are crucial to perform a tailored evaluation and follow-up during CAR-T treatment. This review aims to summarize the pathophysiology, clinical implications, and echocardiographic assessment of CAR-T-related cardiotoxicity to enlighten new avenues for future research.

Too much of a good thing in ischemic mitral: lessons for surgeons and cardiologists.

No abstract present.