A Trypanosoma brucei ß3 glycosyltransferase superfamily gene encodes a ß1-6 GlcNAc-transferase mediating N-glycan and GPI anchor modification.

The parasite Trypanosoma brucei exists in both a bloodstream form (BSF) and a procyclic form (PCF), which exhibit large carbohydrate extensions on the N-linked glycans and glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchors, respectively. The parasite's glycoconjugate repertoire suggests at least 38 glycosyltransferase (GT) activities, 16 of which are currently uncharacterized. Here, we probe the function(s) of the uncharacterized GT67 glycosyltransferase family and a ß3 glycosyltransferase (ß3GT) superfamily gene, TbGT10. A BSF-null mutant, created by applying the diCre/loxP method in T. brucei for the first time, showed a fitness cost but was viable in vitro and in vivo and could differentiate into the PCF, demonstrating nonessentiality of TbGT10. The absence of TbGT10 impaired the elaboration of N-glycans and GPI anchor side chains in BSF and PCF parasites, respectively. Glycosylation defects included reduced BSF glycoprotein binding to the lectin ricin and monoclonal antibodies mAb139 and mAbCB1. The latter bind a carbohydrate epitope present on lysosomal glycoprotein p67 that we show here consists of (-6Galß1-4GlcNAcß1-)≥4 poly-N-acetyllactosamine repeats. Methylation linkage analysis of Pronase-digested glycopeptides isolated from BSF wild-type and TbGT10 null parasites showed a reduction in 6-O-substituted- and 3,6-di-O-substituted-Gal residues. These data define TbGT10 as a UDP-GlcNAc:ßGal ß1-6 GlcNAc-transferase. The dual role of TbGT10 in BSF N-glycan and PCF GPI-glycan elaboration is notable, and the ß1-6 specificity of a ß3GT superfamily gene product is unprecedented. The similar activities of trypanosome TbGT10 and higher-eukaryote I-branching enzyme (EC 2.4.1.150), which belong to glycosyltransferase families GT67 and GT14, respectively, in elaborating N-linked glycans, are a novel example of convergent evolution.

Glycosylphosphatidylinositol-specific, CD1d-restricted T cells in paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria.

The mechanism of bone marrow failure (BMF) in paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH) is not yet known. Because in PNH the biosynthesis of the glycolipid molecule glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) is disrupted in hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells by a somatic mutation in the PIG-A gene, BMF might result from an autoimmune attack, whereby T cells target GPI in normal cells, whereas PIG-A mutant GPI-negative cells are spared. In a deliberate test of this hypothesis, we have demonstrated in PNH patients the presence of CD8(+) T cells reactive against antigen-presenting cells (APCs) loaded with GPI. These T cells were significantly more abundant in PNH patients than in healthy controls; their reactivity depended on CD1d expression and they increased upon coculture with CD1d-expressing, GPI-positive APCs. In GPI-specific T cells captured by CD1d dimer technology, we identified, through global T-cell receptor α (TCRα) analysis, an invariant TCRVα21 sequence, which was then found at frequencies higher than background in the TCR repertoire of 6 of 11 PNH patients. Thus, a novel, autoreactive, CD1d-restricted, GPI-specific T-cell population, enriched in an invariant TCRα chain, is expanded in PNH patients and may be responsible for BMF in PNH.

GPIomics: global analysis of glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored molecules of Trypanosoma cruzi.

Glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchoring is a common, relevant posttranslational modification of eukaryotic surface proteins. Here, we developed a fast, simple, and highly sensitive (high attomole-low femtomole range) method that uses liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS(n)) for the first large-scale analysis of GPI-anchored molecules (i.e., the GPIome) of a eukaryote, Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiologic agent of Chagas disease. Our genome-wise prediction analysis revealed that approximately 12% of T. cruzi genes possibly encode GPI-anchored proteins. By analyzing the GPIome of T. cruzi insect-dwelling epimastigote stage using LC-MS(n), we identified 90 GPI species, of which 79 were novel. Moreover, we determined that mucins coded by the T. cruzi small mucin-like gene (TcSMUG S) family are the major GPI-anchored proteins expressed on the epimastigote cell surface. TcSMUG S mucin mature sequences are short (56-85 amino acids) and highly O-glycosylated, and contain few proteolytic sites, therefore, less likely susceptible to proteases of the midgut of the insect vector. We propose that our approach could be used for the high throughput GPIomic analysis of other lower and higher eukaryotes.

Transmission of cutaneous leishmaniasis by sand flies is enhanced by regurgitation of fPPG.

Sand flies are the exclusive vectors of the protozoan parasite Leishmania, but the mechanism of transmission by fly bite has not been determined nor incorporated into experimental models of infection. In sand flies with mature Leishmania infections the anterior midgut is blocked by a gel of parasite origin, the promastigote secretory gel. Here we analyse the inocula from Leishmania mexicana-infected Lutzomyia longipalpis sand flies. Analysis revealed the size of the infectious dose, the underlying mechanism of parasite delivery by regurgitation, and the novel contribution made to infection by filamentous proteophosphoglycan (fPPG), a component of promastigote secretory gel found to accompany the parasites during transmission. Collectively these results have important implications for understanding the relationship between the parasite and its vector, the pathology of cutaneous leishmaniasis in humans and also the development of effective vaccines and drugs. These findings emphasize that to fully understand transmission of vector-borne diseases the interaction between the parasite, its vector and the mammalian host must be considered together.

Natural phosphoglycans containing glycosyl phosphate units: structural diversity and chemical synthesis.

An anomeric phosphodiester linkage formed by a glycosyl phosphate unit and a hydroxyl group of another monosaccharide is found in many glycopolymers of the outer membrane in bacteria (e.g., capsular polysaccharides and lipopolysaccharides), yeasts and protozoa. The polymers (phosphoglycans) composed of glycosyl phosphate (or oligoglycosyl phosphate) repeating units could be chemically classified as poly(glycosyl phosphates). Their importance as immunologically active components of the cell wall and/or capsule of numerous microorganisms upholds the need to develop routes for the chemical preparation of these biopolymers. In this paper, we (1) present a review of the primary structures (known to date) of natural phosphoglycans from various sources, which contain glycosyl phosphate units, and (2) discuss different approaches and recent achievements in the synthesis of glycosyl phosphosaccharides and poly(glycosyl phosphates).

Theoretical and NMR-based Conformational Analysis of Phosphodiester-linked Disaccharides.

The conformational behaviour of three phosphate-bridged dimannosides was studied by means of NMR and computational molecular modelling. First, the conformations of the phosphodiester linker were determined by quantum chemistry methods using dimethyl phosphate as a model. Then, a series of conformations was constructed for each of the studied molecules. Preliminary molecular dynamics (MD) simulations revealed that the inclusion of a cation had a drastic influence on the obtained results. Additionally, triethylammonium had the same effect as sodium as the counter-ion. After that, another series of MD simulations was run. The resulting MD trajectories were used to define the conformations responsible for the observed nuclear Overhauser effects and inter-nuclear coupling.

Parasite glycoconjugates. Part 16: Synthesis of a disaccharide and phosphorylated di- and tri-saccharides from Leishmania lipophosphoglycan.

A neutral disaccharide beta-D-Galp-(1-->4)-alpha-D-Manp and phosphorylated di- and tri-saccharides beta-D-Galp-(1-->3)-[H(2)PO(3)-6]-beta-D-Galp-O[CH(2)](8)CHCH(2) and beta-D-Galp-(1-->3)-[H(2)PO(3)-6]-beta-D-Galp-(1-->4)-alpha-D-Manp, which are fragments of the phosphoglycan portion of the surface lipophosphoglycan from Leishmania donovani (the disaccharide) or Leishmania major (all three compounds), were prepared and used as TLC standards to help the identification and differentiation of the elongating and branching beta-D-galactosyl transferase activities in Leishmania. The phosphosaccharides were synthesised using the H-phosphonate method for phosphorylation.

Probing elongating and branching ß-D-galactosyltransferase activities in Leishmania parasites by making use of synthetic phosphoglycans.

Protozoan parasites of the genus Leishmania synthesize lipophosphoglycans (LPGs), phosphoglycans and proteophosphoglycans that contain phosphosaccharide repeat units of [-6)Gal(ß1-4)Man(α1-OPO(3)H-]. The repeat structures are assembled by sequential addition of Manα1-OPO(3)H and ß-Gal. In this study, an UDP-Gal-dependent activity was detected in L. donovani and L. major membranes using synthetic phospho-oligosaccharide fragments of lipophosphoglycan as acceptor substrates. Incubation of a microsomal preparation from L. donovani or L. major parasites with synthetic substrates and UDP-[6-(3)H]Gal resulted in incorporation of radiolabel into these exogenous acceptors. The [(3)H]galactose-labeled products were characterized by degradation into radioactive, low molecular mass fragments upon hydrolysis with mild acid and treatment with ß-galactosidases. We showed that the activity detected with L. donovani membranes is the elongating ß-d-galactosyltransferase associated with LPG phosphosaccharide backbone biosynthesis (eGalT). The eGalT activity showed a requirement for the presence of at least one phosphodiester group in the substrate and it was enhanced dramatically when two or three phosphodiester groups were present. Using the same substrates we detected two types of galactosyltransferase activity in L. major membranes: the elongating ß-d-galactosyltransferase and a branching ß-d-galactosyltransferase (bGalT). Both L. major enzymes required a minimum of one phosphodiester group present in the substrate, but acceptors with two or three phosphodiester groups were found to be superior.

Probing enzymes late in the trypanosomal glycosylphosphatidylinositol biosynthetic pathway with synthetic glycosylphosphatidylinositol analogues.

Glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored proteins are abundant in the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei, the causative agent of African sleeping sickness in humans and the related disease Nagana in cattle, and disruption of GPI biosynthesis is genetically and chemically validated as a drug target. Here, we examine the ability of enzymes of the trypanosomal GPI biosynthetic pathway to recognize and process a series of synthetic dimannosyl-glucosaminylphosphatidylinositol analogues containing systematic modifications on the mannose residues. The data reveal which portions of the natural substrate are important for recognition, explain why mannosylation occurs prior to inositol acylation in the trypanosomal pathway, and identify the first inhibitor of the third alpha-mannosyltransferase of the GPI biosynthetic pathway.

Synthetic glycovaccine protects against the bite of leishmania-infected sand flies.

Leishmaniasis is a vectorborne disease transmitted to human and other mammalian hosts by sand fly bite. In the present study, we show that immunization with Leishmania mexicana promastigote secretory gel (PSG) or with a chemically defined synthetic glycovaccine containing the glycans found in L. mexicana PSG can provide significant protection against challenge by the bite of infected sand flies. Only the glycan from L. mexicana was protective; those from other species did not protect against L. mexicana infection. Furthermore, neither PSG nor the glycovaccine protected against artificial needle challenge, which is traditionally used in antileishmanial vaccine development. Conversely, an antigen preparation that was effective against needle challenge offered no protection against sand fly bite. These findings provide a new target for Leishmania vaccine development and demonstrate the critical role that the vector plays in the evaluation of candidate vaccines for leishmaniasis and other vectorborne diseases.

Synthetic fragments of antigenic lipophosphoglycans from Leishmania major and Leishmania mexicana and their use for characterisation of the Leishmania elongating alpha-D-mannopyranosylphosphate transferase.

The phosphorylated branched heptasaccharides 7 and 8, the octasaccharide 9 and the phosphorylated trisaccharides 5 and 6, which are fragments of the phosphoglycan portion of the surface lipophosphoglycans from Leishmania mexicana (5) or L. major (6-9), were synthesised by using the glycosyl hydrogenphosphonate method for the preparation of phosphodiester bridges. The compounds were tested as acceptor substrates/putative inhibitors for the Leishmania elongating alpha-D-mannosylphosphate transferase.

The chemical synthesis of beta-(1-->4)-linked D-mannobiose and D-mannotriose.

A D-cellobiose derivative was converted to D-mannobiose via simultaneous epimerization at C-2 and C-2'. Subsequent beta-D-glucosylation and epimerization at C-2" gave D-mannotriose.